Groups that are exempted from reporting their contributions and can receive unlimited contributions. Section 501c of the tax code specifies that such groups cannot spend more than half their funds on political activities.
Independent political groups that are not subject to contribution restrictions because they do not directly seek the election of particular candidates. Section 527 of the tax code specifies that contributions to such groups must be reported to the IRS.
The people in the potential group who actually join.
A 1995 Supreme Court decision holding that federal programs that classify people by race, even for an ostensibly benign purpose such as expanding opportunities for minorities, should be presumed to be unconstitutional.
The authority of administrative actors to select among various responses to a given problem. Discretion is greatest when routines, or standard operating procedures, do not fit a case.
A policy designed to give special attention to or compensatory treatment for members of some previously disadvantaged group.
A law passed in 1990 that requires employers and public facilities to make “reasonable accommodations” for people with disabilities and prohibits discrimination against these individuals in employment.
Legal briefs submitted by a “friend of the court” for the purpose of influencing a court’s decision by raising additional points of view and presenting information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties.
Opponents of the U.S. Constitution at the time when the states were contemplating its adoption.
The jurisdiction of courts that hear cases brought to them on appeal from lower courts. These courts do not review the factual record, only the legal issues involved.
An act of Congress that actually funds programs within limits established by authorization bills. Appropriations usually cover one year.
A tense relationship beginning in the 1950s between the Soviet Union and the United States whereby one side’s weaponry became the other side’s goad to procure more weaponry, and so on.
The first constitution of the United States, adopted by Congress in 1777 and ratified in 1781. The Articles established the Continental Congress as the national legislature, but left most authority with the state legislatures.
An act of Congress that establishes, continues, or changes a discretionary government program or an entitlement. It specifies program goals and maximum expenditures for discretionary programs.
The ratio of what is paid for imports to what is earned from exports. When more is paid than earned, there is a balance-of-trade deficit.
The 1833 Supreme Court decision holding that the Bill of Rights restrained only the national government, not the states or cities.
The key states that the presidential campaigns focus on because they are most likely to decide the outcome of the Electoral College vote.
Specific locations from which news frequently emanates, such as Congress or the White House. Most top reporters work a particular beat, thereby becoming specialists in what goes on at that location.
A legislature divided into two houses. The U.S. Congress and all state legislatures except Nebraska’s are bicameral.
A proposed law, drafted in legal language. Anyone can draft a bill, but only a member of the House of Representatives or the Senate can formally submit a bill for consideration.
The first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which define such basic liberties as freedom of religion, speech, and the press, and they guarantee defendants’ rights.
Federal grants given more or less automatically to states or communities to support broad programs in areas such as community development and social services.
Fiscally conservative Democrats who are mostly from the South and/or rural parts of the United States.
The 1954 Supreme Court decision holding that school segregation is inherently unconstitutional because it violates the Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of equal protection. This case marked the end of legal segregation in the United States.
A policy document allocating burdens (taxes) and benefits (expenditures).
A resolution binding Congress to a total expenditure level, supposedly the bottom line of all federal spending for all programs.
According to Max Weber, a hierarchical authority structure that uses task specialization, operates on the merit principle, and behaves with impersonality.
A group of presidential advisers not mentioned in the Constitution, although every president has had one. Today the cabinet is composed of 14 secretaries, the attorney general, and others designated by the president.
Donations that are made directly to a candidate or a party and that must be reported to the FEC. As of 2014, individuals were allowed to donate up to $2,600 per election to a candidate and up to $32,400 to a political party.
The master game plan candidates lay out to guide their electoral campaign.
Activities of members of Congress that help constituents as individuals, particularly by cutting through bureaucratic red tape to get people what they think they have a right to get.
Federal grants that can be used only for specific purposes, or “categories,” of state and local spending. They come with strings attached, such as nondiscrimination provisions.
A system for selecting convention delegates used in about a dozen states in which voters must attend an open meeting to express their presidential preference.
A group of members of Congress sharing some interest or characteristic. Many are composed of members from both parties and from both houses.
An “actual enumeration” of the population, which the Constitution requires that the government conduct every 10 years. The census is a valuable tool for understanding demographic changes.
An agency created after World War II to coordinate American intelligence activities abroad and to collect, analyze, and evaluate intelligence.
Groups of newspapers published by media conglomerates and today accounting for over four-fifths of the nation’s daily newspaper circulation.
Features of the Constitution that require each branch of the federal government to obtain the consent of the others for its actions; they limit , the power of each branch.
A 2010 landmark Supreme Court case that ruled that individuals, corporations, and unions could donate unlimited amounts of money to groups that make independent political expenditures.
The belief that in order to support democratic government, a citizen should vote.
A form of political participation based on a conscious decision to break a law believed to be unjust and to suffer the consequences.
The constitutional and other legal protections against government actions. Our civil liberties are formally set down in the Bill of Rights.
Policies designed to protect people against arbitrary or discriminatory treatment by government officials or individuals.
The law making racial discrimination in public accommodations illegal. It forbade many forms of job discrimination. It also strengthened voting rights.
A system of hiring and promotion based on the merit principle and the desire to create a nonpartisan government service.
Lawsuits in which a small number of people sue on behalf of all people in similar circumstances.
The law aimed at combating air pollution, by charging the EPA with protecting and improving the quality of the nation’s air.
Elections to select party nominees in which only people who have registered in advance with the party can vote for that party’s candidates, thus encouraging greater party loyalty.
A group of individuals with a common interest on which every political party depends.
When two or more parties join together to form a majority in a national legislature. This form of government is quite common in the multiparty systems of Europe.
The hostility between the United States and the Soviet Union, which often brought them to the brink of war and which spanned the period from the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union and Eastern European communist regimes in 1989 and the years following.
Goods and services, such as clean air and clean water, that by their nature cannot be denied to anyone.
The typical system of regulation whereby government tells business how to reach certain goals, checks that these commands are followed, and punishes offenders.
Communication in the form of advertising, which can be restricted more than many other types of speech.
Through their leadership of the committees, committee chairs have important influence on the congressional agenda. They play the dominant role in scheduling hearings, hiring staff, appointing subcommittees, and managing committee bills when they are brought before the full house.
Congressional committees formed when the Senate and the House pass a particular bill in different forms. Party leadership appoints members from each house to iron out the differences and bring back a single bill.
Advises Congress on the probable consequences of its decisions, forecasts revenues, and is a counterweight to the president’s Office of Management and Budget.
The compromise reached at the Constitutional Convention that established two houses of Congress: the House of Representatives, in which representation is based on a state’s population; and the Senate, in which each state has two representatives.
The idea that government derives its authority by sanction of the people.
A nation’s basic law. It creates political institutions, assigns or divides powers in government, and often provides certain guarantees to citizens. Constitutions can be either written or unwritten.
The key measure of inflation—the change in the cost of buying a fixed basket of goods and services.
A foreign policy strategy advocated by George Kennan that called for the United States to isolate the Soviet Union, “contain” its advances, and resist its encroachments by peaceful means if possible but by force if necessary.
When Congress cannot reach agreement and pass appropriations bills, these resolutions allow agencies to spend at the level of the previous year.
A system of government in which states and the national government share powers and policy assignments.
A three-member body appointed by the president to advise the president on economic policy.
Appellate courts empowered to review all final decisions of district courts, except in rare cases. In addition, they also hear appeals to orders of many federal regulatory agencies.
The landmark case in 1971 in which the Supreme Court for the first time upheld a claim of gender discrimination.
A sudden, unpredictable, and potentially dangerous event requiring the president to play the role of crisis manager.
An electoral “earthquake” where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority party is often displaced by the minority party. Critical election periods are sometimes marked by a national crisis and may require more than one election to bring about a new party era.
Court sentences prohibited by the Eighth Amendment.
The document approved by representatives of the American colonies in 1776 that stated their grievances against the British monarch and declared their independence.
An excess of federal expenditures over federal revenues.
A system of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy represents and responds to the public’s preferences.
The science of population changes.
The lifting of government restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities.
A policy, beginning in the early 1970s, that sought a relaxation of tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, coupled with firm guarantees of mutual security.
Transferring responsibility for policies from the federal government to state and local governments.
A method of raising money for a political cause or candidate, in which information and requests for money are sent to people whose names appear on lists of those who have supported similar views or candidates in the past.
The 91 federal courts of original jurisdiction. They are the only federal courts in which trials are held and in which juries may be impaneled.
A system of government in which the states and the national government each remain supreme within their own spheres, each with different powers and policy responsibilities.
Part of the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteeing that persons cannot be deprived of life, liberty, or property by the United States or state governments without due process of law.
Also known as the EITC, a refundable federal income tax credit for low- to moderate-income working individuals and families, even if they did not earn enough money to be required to file a tax return.
The constitutional amendment that forbids cruel and unusual punishment.
The final paragraph of Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which authorizes Congress to pass all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out the enumerated powers.
Direct group involvement in the electoral process, for example, by helping to fund campaigns, getting members to work for candidates, and forming political action committees.
A unique American institution created by the Constitution, providing for the selection of the president by electors chosen by the state parties. Although the Electoral College vote usually reflects a popular majority, less populated states are overrepresented and the winner-take-all rule concentrates campaigns on close states.
Television, radio, and the Internet, as compared with print media.
A theory of American democracy contending that an upper-class elite holds the power and makes policy, regardless of the formal governmental organization.
A law requiring the federal government to protect all species listed as endangered.
The 1962 Supreme Court decision holding that state officials violated the First Amendment when they required that a prayer to be recited by public schoolchildren.
Government programs providing benefits to qualified individuals regardless of need.
Policies for which Congress has obligated itself to pay X level of benefits to Y number of recipients. Social Security benefits are an example.
Powers of the federal government that are listed explicitly in the Constitution. For example, Article I, Section 8, specifically gives Congress the power to coin money and regulate its value and impose taxes.
A detailing of a proposed policy’s environmental effects, which agencies are required to file with the EPA every time they propose to undertake a policy that might be disruptive to the environment.
The largest federal independent regulatory agency, created in 1970 to administer much of U.S. environmental protection policy.
Part of the Fourteenth Amendment emphasizing that the laws must provide equivalent “protection” to all people.
A constitutional amendment originally introduced in Congress in 1923 and passed by Congress in 1972, stating that “equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.” Despite public support, the amendment fell short of the three-fourths of state legislatures required for passage.
Part of the First Amendment stating that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion.”
A transnational government composed of most European nations that coordinates monetary, trade, immigration, and labor policies, making its members one economic unit.
The rule that evidence cannot be introduced into a trial if it was not obtained in a constitutional manner. The rule prohibits use of evidence obtained through unreasonable search and seizure.
Regulations originating with the executive branch. Executive orders are one method presidents can use to control the bureaucracy.
Public opinion surveys used by major media pollsters to predict electoral winners with speed and precision.
Government spending. Major areas of federal spending are social services and national defense.
A legal process whereby a state surrenders a person charged with a crime to the state in which the crime is alleged to have been committed.
Groups such as interest groups, that according to James Madison, arise from the unequal distribution of property or wealth and have the potential to cause instability in government.
A law passed in 1974 for reforming campaign finances. The act created the Federal Election Commission and provided for limits on and disclosure of campaign contributions.
A six-member bipartisan agency created by the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974. The Federal Election Commission administers and enforces campaign finance laws.
The main instrument for making monetary policy in the United States. It was created by Congress in 1913 to regulate the lending practices of banks and thus the money supply.
A way of organizing a nation so that two or more levels of government share formal authority over the same area and people.
The Federalist Papers are a set of 85 essays that advocate ratification of the Constitution and provide insightful commentary on the nature of the new system of government.
Supporters of the U.S. Constitution at the time the states were contemplating its adoption.
The increasing concentration of poverty among women, especially unmarried women and their children.
The constitutional amendment adopted in 1870 to extend suffrage to African Americans.
A constitutional amendment designed to protect the rights of persons accused of crimes. It provides protection against double jeopardy, self-incrimination, and punishment without due process of law.
A strategy unique to the Senate whereby opponents of a piece of legislation use their right to unlimited debate to prevent the Senate from ever voting on a bill. Sixty members present and voting can halt a filibuster on legislation.
The constitutional amendment that protects the four great liberties: freedom of religion, of speech, of the press, and of assembly.
The pattern of spending, taxing, and providing grants in the federal system; it is the cornerstone of the national government’s relations with state and local governments.
Use of the federal budget—taxes, spending, and borrowing—to influence the economy; along with monetary policy, a main tool by which the government can attempt to steer the economy. Fiscal policy is almost entirely determined by Congress and the president.
Policy that involves choice taking about relations with the rest of the world. The president is the chief initiator of U.S. foreign policy.
Federal categorical grants distributed according to a formula specified in legislation or in administrative regulations.
The constitutional amendment adopted after the Civil War that declares “No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.”
A First Amendment provision that prohibits government from interfering with the practice of religion.
For a group, the problem of people not joining because they can benefit from the group’s activities without joining.
The recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention.
A clause in Article IV of the Constitution requiring each state to recognize the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of all other states.
The regular pattern in which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates, in part because they tend to be less conservative than men and more likely to support spending on social services and to oppose higher levels of military spending.
A landmark case decided in 1824 in which the Supreme Court interpreted very broadly the clause in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution and defined the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce as encompassing virtually every form of commercial activity.
The 1963 Supreme Court decision holding that anyone accused of a felony where imprisonment may be imposed has a right to a lawyer. The decision requires the government to provide a lawyer to anyone so accused who is too poor to afford one.
The 1925 Supreme Court decision holding that freedoms of press and speech are “fundamental personal rights and liberties protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment from impairment by the states” as well as by the federal government.
The increase in the earth’s temperatures that, according to most scientists, is occurring as a result of the carbon dioxide that is produced when fossil fuels are burned collecting in the atmosphere and trapping energy from the sun.
The institutions through which public policies are made for a society.
A government organization that, like business corporations, provides a service that could be delivered by the private sector and typically charges for its services. The U.S. Postal Service is an example.
The 1976 Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of the death penalty, as “an extreme sanction, suitable to the most extreme of crimes.”
The sum total of the value of all the goods and services produced in a year in a nation.
A schedule for federal employees, ranging from GS 1 to GS 18, by which salaries can be keyed to rating and experience.
A federal law prohibiting government employees from active participation in partisan politics while on duty or for employees in sensitive positions at any time.
Organization contracted by individuals or insurance companies to provide health care for a yearly fee. Such network health plans limit the choice of doctors and treatments. More than half of Americans are enrolled in health maintenance organizations or similar programs.
A 1954 Supreme Court decision that extended protection against discrimination to Hispanics.
A politics in which the behavior of citizens and policymakers and the political agenda itself are increasingly shaped by technology.
The committee in the House of Representatives that reviews most bills coming from a House committee before they go to the full House.
The House of Representatives committee that, along with the Senate Finance Committee, writes the tax codes, subject to the approval of Congress as a whole.
A theory of American democracy contending that groups are so strong that government, which gives in to the many different groups, is thereby weakened.
The political equivalent of an indictment in criminal law, prescribed by the Constitution. The House of Representatives may impeach the president by a majority vote for “Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.”
Powers of the federal government that go beyond those enumerated in the Constitution, in accordance with the statement in the Constitution that Congress has the power to “make all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution” the powers enumerated in Article I.
An alternative to command-and-control, with marketlike strategies such as rewards used to manage public policy.
The amount of money collected between any two points in time.
The way the national income is divided into “shares” ranging from the poor to the rich.
Shares of individual wages and corporate revenues collected by the government. The Sixteenth Amendment explicitly authorized Congress to levy a tax on income.
The legal concept under which the Supreme Court has nationalized the Bill of Rights by making most of its provisions applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment.
A description of the budget process in which the best predictor of this year’s budget is last year’s budget, plus a little bit more (an increment). According to Aaron Wildavsky, “Most of the budget is a product of previous decisions.”
Those ndividuals who already hold office. In congressional elections, incumbents usually win.
The government agencies not accounted for by cabinet departments, independent regulatory commissions, and government corporations. Administrators are typically appointed by the president and serve at the president’s pleasure. NASA is an example.
Expenses on behalf of a political message that are made by groups that are uncoordinated with any candidate’s campaign.
A government agency with responsibility for making and enforcing rules to protect the public interest in some sector of the economy and for judging disputes over these rules.
A rise in price of goods and services.
Mutual reliance, as in the economic realm, in which actions in nations reverberate and affect the economic well-being of people in other nations.
An organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals. Interest groups pursue their goals in many arenas.
The entire set of interactions among national, state, and local governments—including regulations, transfers of funds, and the sharing of information—that constitute the workings of the federal system.
The use of in-depth reporting to unearth scandals, scams, and schemes, at times putting reporters in adversarial relationships with political leaders.
The period before any votes are cast when candidates compete to win early support from the elite of the party and to create a positive first impression of their leadership skills.
Also known as subgovernments, a mutually dependent, mutually advantageous relationship between bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees. Iron triangles dominate some areas of domestic policymaking.
The foreign policy course the United States followed throughout most of its history whereby it tried to stay out of other nations’ conflicts, particularly European wars.
A group that consists of the commanding officers of each of the armed services, a chairperson, and a vice chairperson, and advises the president on military policy.
Congressional committees on a few subject-matter areas with membership drawn from both houses.
An approach to decision making in which judges sometimes make bold policy decisions, even charting new constitutional ground.
How and whether court decisions are translated into actual policy, thereby affecting the behavior of others. The courts rely on other units of government to enforce their decisions.
An approach to decision making in which judges play minimal policymaking roles and defer to legislatures whenever possible.
The power of the courts to determine whether acts of Congress and, by implication, the executive are in accord with the U.S. Constitution. Judicial review was established by Marbury v. Madison.
Issues capable of being settled as a matter of law.
Named after English economist John Maynard Keynes, the theory emphasizing that government spending and deficits can help the economy deal with its ups and downs. Proponents of this theory advocate using the power of government to stimulate the economy when it is lagging.
A 1944 Supreme Court decision that upheld as constitutional the internment of more than 100,000 Americans of Japanese descent in encampments during World War II.
The principle that government should not meddle in the economy.
Congress’s monitoring of the executive branch bureaucracy and its administration of policy, performed mainly through committee hearings.
A vote in Congress to override a presidential decision. Although the War Powers Resolution asserts this authority, there is reason to believe that, if challenged, the Supreme Court would find the legislative veto in violation of the doctrine of separation of powers.
The 1971 Supreme Court decision that established that aid to church-related schools must (1) have a secular legislative purpose; (2) have a primary effect that neither advances nor inhibits religion; and (3) not foster excessive government entanglement with religion.
The publication of false and malicious statements that may damage someone’s reputation.
The idea that certain restrictions should be placed on government to protect the natural rights of citizens.
The political channels through which people’s concerns become political issues on the policy agenda. In the United States, linkage institutions include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.
According to Lester Milbrath, a “communication, by someone other than a citizen acting on his or her own behalf, directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of influencing his or her decision.”
The principal partisan ally of the Speaker of the House or the majority party’s manager in the Senate. The majority leader in each house is responsible for scheduling bills, influencing committee assignments, and rounding up votes on behalf of the party’s legislative positions.
A fundamental principle of traditional democratic theory. In a democracy, choosing among alternatives requires that the majority’s desire be respected.
The idea that the winning candidate has a mandate from the people to carry out his or her platforms and politics. Politicians like the theory better than political scientists do.
The 1961 Supreme Court decision ruling that the Fourth Amendment’s protection against unreasonable searches and seizures must be extended to the states.
The 1803 case in which the Supreme Court asserted its right to determine the meaning of the U.S. Constitution. The decision established the Court’s power of judicial review over acts of Congress.
Television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the Internet, and other means of popular communication.
The 1987 Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of the death penalty against charges that it violated the Fourteenth Amendment because minority defendants were more likely to receive the death penalty than were white defendants.
An 1819 Supreme Court decision that established the supremacy of the national government over state governments. The Court, led by Chief Justice John Marshall, held that Congress had certain implied powers in addition to the powers enumerated in the Constitution.
A commission formed at the 1968 Democratic convention in response to demands for reform by minority groups and others who sought better representation.
Government programs providing benefits only to individuals who qualify based on specific needs.
Events that are purposely staged for the media and that are significant just because the media are there.
A public assistance program designed to provide health care for poor Americans and funded by both the states and the national government.
A program added to the Social Security system in 1965 that provides hospitalization insurance for the elderly and permits older Americans to purchase inexpensive coverage for doctor fees and other medical expenses.
A term often used to characterize the United States, with its history of immigration and mixing of cultures, ideas, and peoples.
The idea that hiring should be based on entrance exams and promotion ratings to produce administration by people with talent and skill.
A 1974 case in which the Supreme Court held that a state could not force a newspaper to print replies from candidates it had criticized. The case illustrates the limited power of government to restrict the print media.
A 1973 Supreme Court decision holding that community standards be used to determine whether material is obscene, defined as appealing to a “prurient interest,” being “patently offensive,” and lacking in “serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.”
The principal leader of the minority party in the House of Representatives or in the Senate.
The situation, likely beginning in the mid-twenty-first century, in which the non-Hispanic whites will represent a minority of the U.S. population and minority groups together will represent a majority.
A principle of traditional democratic theory that guarantees rights to those who do not belong to majorities.
The 1966 Supreme Court decision that set guidelines for police questioning of accused persons to protect them against self-incrimination and to protect their right to counsel.
An economic theory holding that the supply of money is the key to a nation’s economic health, with too much cash and credit in circulation producing inflation.
Government manipulation of the supply of money in private hands—one of two important tools by which the government can attempt to steer the economy.
A 1993 act that requires states to permit people to register to vote when they apply for a driver’s license.
The 1958 Supreme Court decision that the right to assemble meant that Alabama could not require the state chapter of NAACP to reveal its membership list.
Media programming on cable TV (e.g., on MTV, ESPN, or C-SPAN) or the Internet that is focused on a particular interest and aimed at a particular audience, in contrast to broadcasting.
The person responsible for the day-to-day activities of the party.
One of the institutions that keeps the party operating between conventions. The national committee is composed of representatives from the states and territories.
All the money borrowed by the federal government over the years and still outstanding. Today the national debt is about $18.7 trillion.
Passed in 1969, the centerpiece of federal environmental policy, which requires agencies to file environmental impact statements.
A compulsory insurance program for all Americans that would have the government finance citizens’ medical care. First proposed by President Harry S. Truman.
The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party’s platform.
The committee that links the president’s foreign and military policy advisers. Its formal members are the president, vice president, secretary of state, and secretary of defense, and it is managed by the president’s national security assistant.
Rights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments, which include life, liberty, and property. The concept of natural rights was central to English philosopher John Locke’s theories about government and was widely accepted among America’s Founders.
The 1931 Supreme Court decision holding that the First Amendment protects newspapers from prior restraint.
A coalition forged by the Democrats, who dominated American politics from the 1930s to the 1960s. Its basic elements were the urban working class, ethnic groups, Catholics and Jews, the poor, Southerners, African Americans, and intellectuals.
The proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for equal representation of each state in Congress regardless of the size of the state’s population.
A 1964 Supreme Court decision establishing that, to win damage suits for libel, public figures must prove that the defamatory statements about them were made with “actual malice” and reckless disregard for the truth.
The constitutional amendment adopted in 1920 that guarantees women the right to vote.
The official endorsement of a candidate for office by a political party. Generally, success in the nomination game requires momentum, money, and media attention.
A regional organization that was created in 1949 by nations including the United States, Canada, and most Western European nations for mutual defense and has subsequently been expanded.
An office that prepares the president’s budget and also advises presidents on proposals from departments and agencies and helps review their proposed regulations.
The office in charge of hiring for most agencies of the federal government, using elaborate rules in the process.
Elections to select party nominees in which voters can decide on Election Day whether they want to participate in the Democratic or Republican contests.
A statement of legal reasoning behind a judicial decision. The content of an opinion may be as important as the decision itself.
An economic organization consisting primarily of Middle Eastern nations that seeks to control the amount of oil its members produce and sell to other nations and hence the price of oil.
The jurisdiction of courts that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These are the courts that determine the facts about a case.
A view that the Constitution should be interpreted according to the original intentions or original meaning of the Framers. Many conservatives support this view.
The battle of the parties for control of public offices. Ups and downs of the two major parties are one of the most important elements in American politics.
The gradual disengagement of people from the parties, as seen in part by shrinking party identification.
Historical periods in which a majority of voters cling to the party in power, which tends to win a majority of the elections.
A citizen’s self-proclaimed preference for one party or the other.
The voter’s perception of what the Republicans or Democrats stand for, such as conservatism or liberalism.
A type of political party organization that relies heavily on material inducements, such as patronage, to win votes and to govern.
A political party’s statement of its goals and policies for the next four years. The platform is drafted prior to the party convention by a committee whose members are chosen in rough proportion to each candidate’s strength. It is the best formal statement of a party’s beliefs.
The displacement of the majority party by the minority party, usually during a critical election period.
One of the key inducements used by party machines. A patronage job, promotion, or contract is one that is given for political reasons rather than for merit or competence alone.
Passed in 1883, an act that created a federal civil service so that hiring and promotion would be based on merit rather than patronage.
The welfare reform law of 1996, which implemented the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program.
A 1992 case in which the Supreme Court loosened its standard for evaluating restrictions on abortion from one of “strict scrutiny” of any restraints on a “fundamental right” to abortion to one in which regulations not impose an “undue burden” on women.
A bargain struck between a defendant’s lawyer and a prosecutor to the effect that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser crime (or fewer crimes) in exchange for the state’s promise not to prosecute the defendant for a more serious crime or for additional crimes.
An 1896 Supreme Court decision that provided a constitutional justification for segregation by ruling that a Louisiana law requiring “equal but separate accommodations for the white and colored races” was constitutional.
A theory of American democracy emphasizing that the policymaking process is very open to the participation of all groups with shared interests, with no single group usually dominating. Pluralists tend to believe that as a result, public interest generally prevails.
A type of veto occurring when Congress adjourns within 10 days of submitting a bill to the president and the president simply lets the bill die by neither signing nor vetoing it.
The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actively involved in politics at the time.
People who invest their political “capital” in an issue. According to John Kingdon, a policy entrepreneur “could be in or out of government, in elected or appointed positions, in interest groups or research organizations.”
A condition that occurs when interests conflict and no coalition is strong enough to form a majority and establish policy, so nothing gets done.
The effects a policy has on people and problems. Impacts are analyzed to see how well a policy has met its goal and at what cost.
The stage of policymaking between the establishment of a policy and the consequences of the policy for the people affected. Implementation involves translating the goals and objectives of a policy into an operating, ongoing program.
The branches of government charged with taking action on political issues. The U.S. Constitution established three policymaking institutions—Congress, the presidency, and the courts. Today, the power of the bureaucracy is so great that most political scientists consider it a fourth policymaking institution.
The process by which policy comes into being and evolves. People’s interests, problems, and concerns create political issues for government policymakers. These issues shape policy, which in turn impacts people, generating more interests, problems, and concerns.
Electoral choices that are made on the basis of the voters’ policy preferences and where the candidates stand on policy issues.
Groups that raise money from individuals and then distribute it in the form of contributions to candidates that the group supports. PACs must register with the FEC and report their donations and contributions to it. Individual contributions to a PAC are limited to $5,000 per year and a PAC may give up to $5,000 to a candidate for each election.
An overall set of values widely shared within a society.
The belief that one’s political participation really matters—that one’s vote can actually make a difference.
A coherent set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and public purpose, which helps give meaning to political events.
An issue that arises when people disagree about a problem and how to fix it.
All the activities used by citizens to influence the selection of political leaders or the policies they pursue. The most common means of political participation in a democracy is voting; other means include protest and civil disobedience.
According to Anthony Downs, a “team of men [and women] seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election.”
A doctrine developed by the federal courts and used as a means to avoid deciding some cases, principally those involving conflicts between the president and Congress.
The process through which individuals in a society acquire political attitudes, views, and knowledge, based on inputs from family, schools, the media, and others.
The process determining the leaders we select and the policies they pursue. Politics produces authoritative decisions about public issues.
Small taxes levied on the right to vote. Poll taxes were used by most Southern states to exclude African Americans from voting.
Federal projects, grants, and contracts available to state and local governments, businesses, colleges, and other institutions in a congressional district.
All the people who might be interest group members because they share some common interest.
The income threshold below which people are considered poor, based on what a family must spend for an “austere” standard of living, traditionally set at three times the cost of a subsistence diet.
How similar cases have been decided in the past.
These occur when voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the president’s party because they support the president. Research shows that few races are won this way.
Elections in which a state’s voters go to the polls to express their preference for a party’s nominee for president. Most delegates to the national party conventions are chosen this way.
Meetings of public officials with reporters.
Newspapers and magazines, as compared with electronic media.
Government actions that prevent material from being published. As confirmed in Near v. Minnesota, prior restraint is usually prohibited by the First Amendment.
The provision of the Constitution according citizens of each state the privileges of citizens of any state in which they happen to be.
Reasonable grounds for believing that a person is guilty of a crime. In order to make a lawful arrest, the police must have probable cause.
A tax by which the government takes a greater share of the income of the rich than of the poor—for example, when a rich family pays 50 percent of its income in taxes, and a poor family pays 5 percent.
Federal categorical grant given for specific purposes and awarded on the basis of the merits of applications.
An electoral system used throughout most of Europe that awards legislative seats to political parties in proportion to the number of votes won in an election.
A tax by which the government takes the same share of income from everyone, rich and poor alike.
A form of political participation designed to achieve policy change through dramatic and unconventional tactics.
According to Jeffrey Berry, organizations that seek “a collective good, the achievement of which will not selectively and materially benefit the membership or activists of the organization.”
The distribution of the population’s beliefs about politics and policy issues.
A choice that government makes in response to a political issue. A policy is a course of action taken with regard to some problem.
A technique used by pollsters to place telephone calls randomly to both listed and unlisted numbers when conducting a survey.
The key technique employed by survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample.
A popular theory in political science to explain the actions of voters as well as politicians. It assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives.
The process of reallocating seats in the House of Representatives every 10 years on the basis of the results of the census.
A congressional process through which program authorizations are revised to achieve required savings. It usually also includes tax or other revenue adjustments.
A 1969 case in which the Supreme Court upheld restrictions on radio and television broadcasting similar to those it had overturned in Miami Herald Publishing Company v. Tornillo. The Court reasoned that regulating radio and television broadcasting is frequencies available.
The landmark case in 1971 in which the Supreme Court for the first time upheld a claim of gender discrimination.
A 1978 Supreme Court decision holding that a state university may weigh race or ethnic background as one element in admissions but may not set aside places for members of particular racial groups.
A tax in which the burden falls relatively more heavily on low-income groups than on wealthy taxpayers. The opposite of a progressive tax, in which tax rates increase as income increases.
The use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector.
A perception by an individual that he or she is not doing well economically in comparison to others.
A basic principle of traditional democratic theory that describes the relationship between the few leaders and the many followers.
A form of government in which the people select representatives to govern them and make laws.
A view about how parties should work, held by some political scientists. According to the model, parties should offer clear choices to the voters and once in office, should carry out their campaign promises.
The financial resources of the government. The individual income tax and Social Security tax are two major sources of the federal government’s revenue.
The right to a private personal life free from the intrusion of government.
A state law forbidding requirements that workers must join a union to hold their jobs. State right-to-work laws were specifically permitted by the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947.
The 1973 Supreme Court decision holding that a Texas state ban on abortions was unconstitutional. The decision forbade state control over abortions during the first trimester of pregnancy, permitted states to limit abortions to protect a mother’s health in the second trimester, and permitted states to ban abortion during the third trimester.
A 1957 Supreme Court decision ruling that “obscenity is not within the area of constitutionally protected speech or press.”
A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole.
The level of confidence in the findings of a public opinion poll. The more people interviewed, the more confident one can be of the results.
A 1919 Supreme Court decision upholding the conviction of a socialist who had urged resistance to the draft during World War I. Justice Holmes declared that government can limit speech if the speech provokes a “clear and present danger” of substantive evils.
The 1963 Supreme Court decision holding that a Pennsylvania law requiring Bible reading in schools violated the establishment clause of the First Amendment.
The 1857 Supreme Court decision ruling that a slave who had escaped to a free state enjoyed no rights as a citizen and that Congress had no authority to ban slavery in the territories.
A written authorization from a court specifying the area to be searched and what the police may search for.
The head of the Department of Defense and the president’s key adviser on military policy and, as such, a key foreign policy actor.
The head of the Department of State and traditionally the key adviser to the president on foreign policy.
Congressional committees appointed for a specific purpose, such as the Watergate investigation.
Goods that a group can restrict to those who actually join.
The process through which people consciously choose to get the news from information sources that have viewpoints compatible with their own.
The phenomenon that people’s beliefs often guide what they pay the most attention to and how they interpret events.
Being a witness against oneself. The Fifth Amendment forbids involuntary self-incrimination.
The Senate committee that, along with the House Ways and Means Committee, writes the tax codes, subject to the approval of Congress as a whole.
An unwritten tradition whereby nominations for state-level federal judicial posts are usually not confirmed if they are opposed by a senator of the president’s party from the state in which the nominee will serve. The tradition also applies to courts of appeals when there is opposition from a senator of the president’s party who is from the nominee’s state.
An elite cadre of about 9,000 federal government managers at the top of the civil service system.
A simple rule for picking committee chairs, in effect until the 1970s. The member who had served on the committee the longest and whose party controlled the chamber became chair, regardless of party loyalty, mental state, or competence.
A feature of the Constitution that requires each of the three branches of government—executive, legislative, and judicial—to be relatively independent of the others so that one cannot control the others. Power is shared among these three institutions.
A series of attacks on courthouses by a small band of farmers led by Revolutionary War Captain Daniel Shays to block foreclosure proceedings.
Groups that have a narrow interest on which their members tend to take an uncompromising stance.
The constitutional amendment adopted in 1913 that explicitly permitted Congress to levy an income tax.
A constitutional amendment designed to protect individuals accused of crimes. It includes the right to counsel, the right to confront witnesses, and the right to a speedy and public trial.
Created both the Social Security program and a national assistance program for poor families.
The “account” into which Social Security employee and employer contributions are “deposited” and used to pay out eligible recipients.
Policies that provide benefits, cash or in-kind, to individuals, based on either entitlement or means testing.
Political contributions earmarked for party-building expenses at the grassroots level or for generic party advertising. For a time, such contributions were unlimited, until they were banned by the McCain–Feingold Act.
A presidential appointee and the third-ranking office in the Department of Justice. The solicitor general is in charge of the appellate court litigation of the federal government.
Short video clips of approximately 10 seconds. Typically, they are all that is shown from a politician’s speech on the nightly television news.
An office mandated by the Constitution. The Speaker is chosen in practice by the majority party, has both formal and informal powers, and is second in line (after the vice president) to succeed to the presidency should that office become vacant.
Better known as SOPs, these procedures for everyday decision making enable bureaucrats to bring efficiency and uniformity to the running of complex organizations. Uniformity promotes fairness and makes personnel interchangeable.
Committees in each house of Congress that handle bills in different policy areas.
The requirement that plaintiffs have a serious interest in a case, which depends on whether they have sustained or are likely to sustain a direct and substantial injury from another party or from an action of government.
A Latin phrase meaning “let the decision stand.” Most cases reaching appellate courts are settled on this principle.
The judicial interpretation of an act of Congress. In some cases where statutory construction is an issue, Congress passes new legislation to clarify existing laws.
A phrase referring to those bureaucrats who are in constant contact with the public and have considerable administrative discretion.
The legal right to vote, extended to African Americans by the Fifteenth Amendment, to women by the Nineteenth Amendment, and to 18- to 20-year-olds by the Twenty-sixth Amendment.
Independent expenditure-only PACs are known as Super PACs because they may accept donations of any size and can endorse candidates. Their contributions and expenditures must be periodically reported to the FEC.
National party leaders who automatically get a delegate slot at the national party convention.
A fund created by Congress in 1980 to clean up hazardous waste sites.
An economic theory, first applied during the Reagan administration, holding that the key task for fiscal policy is to stimulate the supply of goods, as by cutting tax rates.
The clause in Article VI of the Constitution that makes the Constitution, national laws, and treaties supreme over state laws as long as the national government is acting within its constitutional limits.
The pinnacle of the American judicial system. The Court ensures uniformity in interpreting national laws, resolves conflicts among states, and maintains national supremacy in law. It has both original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction.
Nonverbal communication, such as burning a flag or wearing an armband. The Supreme Court has accorded some symbolic speech protection under the First Amendment.
A shot of a person’s face talking directly to the camera. Because such shots are visually unstimulating, the major networks rarely show politicians talking for very long.
A tax added to imported goods to raise their price, thereby protecting businesses and workers from foreign competition.
Revenue losses that result from special exemptions, exclusions, or deductions allowed by federal tax law.
Replacing Aid to Families with Dependent Children as the program for public assistance to needy families, TANF requires people on welfare to find work within two years and sets a lifetime maximum of five years.
The constitutional amendment stating, “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.”
A 1989 case in which the Supreme Court struck down a law banning the burning of the American flag on the grounds that such action was symbolic speech protected by the First Amendment.
Electoral contenders other than the two major parties. American third parties are not unusual, but they rarely win elections.
The constitutional amendment ratified after the Civil War that forbade slavery and involuntary servitude.
Voting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices.
Benefits given by the government directly to individuals—either cash transfers, such as Social Security payments, or in-kind transfers, such as food stamps and low-interest college loans.
Intentional news leaks for the purpose of assessing the political reaction.
Ratified in 1967, this amendment permits the vice president to become acting president if the vice president and the president’s cabinet determine that the president is disabled, and it outlines how a recuperated president can reclaim the job.
The constitutional amendment passed in 1964 that declared poll taxes void in federal elections.
Ratified in 1951, this amendment limits presidents to two terms of office.
The document written in 1787 and ratified in 1788 that sets forth the institutional structure of U.S. government and the tasks these institutions perform. It replaced the Articles of Confederation.
Expenditures that are determined by how many eligible beneficiaries there are for a program or by previous obligations of the government and that Congress therefore cannot easily control.
As measured by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, a statistic that includes (1) people who aren’t working and are actively seeking a job, (2) those who would like to work but have given up looking, and (3) and those who are working part-time because they cannot find a full-time position.
As measured by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the proportion of the labor force actively seeking work but unable to find jobs.
A provision found in some collective bargaining agreements requiring all employees of a business to join the union within a short period, usually 30 days, and to remain members as a condition of employment.
A central government that holds supreme power in a nation. Most national governments today are unitary governments.
Created in 1945 and currently including 193 member nations, with a central peacekeeping mission and programs in areas including economic development and health, education, and welfare. The seat of real power in the UN is the Security Council.
Obtaining evidence in an unlawful manner, a practice prohibited by the Fourth Amendment. The police must have probable cause and/or a search warrant in order to make a legal and proper search for and seizure of incriminating evidence and seize such evidence.
The constitutional power of the president to send a bill back to Congress with reasons for rejecting it. A two-thirds vote in each house can override a veto.
The proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for representation of each state in Congress to be proportional to its population.
A system adopted by the states that requires voters to register prior to voting. Some states require citizens to register as much as 30 days in advance, whereas others permit Election Day registration.
A law designed to help end formal and informal barriers to African American suffrage. Under the law, hundreds of thousands of African Americans registered to vote, and the number of African American elected officials increased dramatically.
A law passed in 1973, in reaction to American fighting in Vietnam and Cambodia, that requires presidents to consult with Congress whenever possible prior to using military force and to withdraw forces after 60 days unless Congress declares war or grants an extension. However, presidents have viewed the resolution as unconstitutional.
A law intended to clean up the nation’s rivers and lakes by enabling regulation of point sources of pollution.
The events and scandal surrounding a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in 1972 and the subsequent cover-up of White House involvement, leading to the eventual resignation of President Nixon under the threat of impeachment.
The value of assets owned.
Party leaders who work with the majority leader or minority leader to count votes beforehand and lean on waverers whose votes are crucial to the passage of a bill favored by the party.
Primary elections from which African Americans were excluded, an exclusion that, in the heavily Democratic South, deprived African Americans of a voice in the real contests. The Supreme Court declared white primaries unconstitutional in 1944.
An electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded only to the candidates who come in first in their constituencies.
A court order requiring authorities to explain to a judge what lawful reason they have for are holding a prisoner in custody.
The 2002 Supreme Court decision that upheld a state program providing families with vouchers that could be used to pay for tuition at religious schools.
A 1978 Supreme Court decision holding that a search warrant could be applied to a newspaper without necessarily violating the First Amendment rights to freedom of the press.