4. Murdock 1949, 8.
5. Stephens 1963, 170–71; Radin 1923.
7. Ibid.
9. Evans-Pritchard 1970, 1428–34.
12. Murdock 1949, 7–8.
13. Ibid., 9–10.
14. See, for example, Linton 1936, 135–36.
16. Ibid.
17. Marlowe 2003, 221–23.
19. Graburn 1969, 188–200.
20. Malinowski 1932, 77.
21. Ibid., 88.
26. Ibid.
27. For an extensive discussion of the symbolism of Rotuman weddings, see A. Howard and Rensel 2009.
28. Schlegel and Eloul 1987. Huber, Danaher and Breedlove (2011) point out that most societies have more than one type of transaction.
29. Schlegel and Eloul 1988, 295, Table 1. We used the data to calculate the frequency of various types of economic transaction in a worldwide sample of 186 societies.
34. Schlegel and Eloul 1988, 298–99.
35. Pryor 1977, 363–64.
36. Ibid.
37. Spencer 1968, 136.
38. Schlegel and Eloul 1988, 296–97.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid.
41. Radcliffe-Brown 1922, 73.
42. Murdock 1967; Goody 1973, 17–21.
43. Pryor 1977, 363–65; Schlegel and Eloul 1988, 296–99.
44. Research is reported in Gaulin and Boster 1990, 994–1005. The first theory discussed herein is associated with Boserup 1970. The second is put forward by Gaulin and Boster.
45. Schlegel and Eloul 1988, following Goody 1973, 20.
46. Barth 1965, 18–19; as reported in (and coded as indirect dowry by) Schlegel and Eloul 1987, 131.
47. Middleton 1962, 606.
48. Durham 1991, 293–94, citing research by Hopkins 1980.
50. Talmon 1964, 492.
51. Ibid., 504.
52. A. Wolf 1968, 864.
53. A. Wolf and Chieh-shan Huang 1980, 159, 170, 185.
55. M. Ember 1975; Durham 1991, 341–57.
56. For a discussion of mechanisms that might lead to sexual aversion, see S. Parker 1976; 1984.
59. Quoted in L. A. White 1949, 313.
62. Stern 1973, 494–95, as cited in M. Ember 1975, 256. For a review of the theory and evidence, see Durham 1991.
63. Seemanova 1971, 108–28, as cited in Durham 1991, 305–309.
64. Durham 1991, 305–309.
65. Ibid., 346–52.
66. Firth 1957, 287–88, cited (somewhat differently) in Durham 1991, 349–50.
67. A mathematical model of early mating systems suggests that people may have noticed the harmful effects of inbreeding once populations began to expand as a result of agriculture; people therefore may have deliberately adopted the incest taboo to solve the problem of inbreeding. See M. Ember 1975. For a similar subsequent suggestion, see Durham 1991, 331–39.
68. Goode 1982, 61–62.
70. Sussman 1953.
71. Apostolou 2011.
72. C. S. Ford 1941, 149.
73. A. Howard and Rensel 2004.
75. Goode 1970, 210.
77. MacDonald and Hewlett 1999, 504–506.
78. M. Ember 1975, 262, Table 3.
80. M. Ember 1975, 260–69; see also Durham 1991, 341–57.
81. Murdock 1949, 29.
82. Bogoras 1909, cited in W. Stephens 1963, 195.
83. Oliver 1955, 352–53.
84. Ibid., 223–24, quoted in W. Stephens 1963, 58.
87. The discussion of these customs is based on W. Stephens 1963, 63–67.
88. Kilbride and Kilbride 1990, 202–206.
89. C. Anderson 2000, 102–103.
90. Linton 1936, 183.
92. Ibid., 518.
93. Ibid., 516–17.
95. M. Ember 1984–1985. The statistical relationship between late age of marriage for men and polygyny was first reported by Witkowski 1975.
96. M. Ember 1974b, 202–05.
97. M. Ember 1984–1985. For other predictors of polygyny, see D. R. White and Burton 1988.
103. M. C. Goldstein 1987, 39.
104. Stephens 1963, 45.
106. M. Goldstein 1987. Formerly, in feudal Tibet, a class of serfs who owned small parcels of land also practiced polyandry. Goldstein suggests that a shortage of land would explain their polyandry too. See M. C. Goldstein 1971.
108. For example, see M. L. Cohen 1976.
109. Pasternak 1976, 96.
111. Melvin Ember, pers. comm.
114. Mead 1961/1928, quoted in Stephens 1963, 134–35.
115. Ibid., 135.
117. Pasternak et al. 1976, 109–23.