positions that are earned, accomplished, or involve at least some effort or activity on the individual’s part
rain containing sulfuric and nitric acids (burning fossil fuels release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide that become sulfuric and nitric acids when they react with moisture in the air)
an excited group of people who move toward a goal
the view that satisfaction during old age is related to a person’s amount and quality of activity
people born at roughly the same time who pass through the life course together
prejudice and discrimination directed against people because of their age; can be directed against any age group, including youth
someone who spies on a group or tries to sabotage it
people or groups that affect our self concept, attitudes, behaviors, or other orientations toward life
individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but who do not see themselves as belonging together
the second social revolution, based on the invention of the plow, which led to agricultural societies
a society based on large-scale agriculture
Marx’s term for workers’ lack of connection to the product of their labor; caused by workers being assigned repetitive tasks on a small part of a product, which leads to a sense of powerlessness and normlessness; others use the term in the general sense of not feeling a part of something
a social movement that seeks to alter only some specific aspects of people’s behavior
medical treatment other than that of standard Western medicine; often refers to traditional medical practices in Asia, but may also refer to taking vitamins not prescribed by a doctor
a condition of lawlessness or political disorder caused by the absence or collapse of governmental authority
the belief that all objects in the world have spirits, some of which are cunning and dangerous and must be outwitted
Durkheim’s term for a condition of society in which people become detached from the usual norms that guide their behavior
the process of learning in advance an anticipated future role or status
prejudice, discrimination, and persecution directed against Jews
the government-approved–and-enforced separation of racial–ethnic groups as was practiced in South Africa
the use of sociology to solve problems—from the micro level of classroom interaction and family relationships to the macro level of race relations and pollution
a position an individual either inherits at birth or receives involuntarily later in life
the process of being absorbed into the mainstream culture
an individual who leads by giving orders
Theodor Adorno’s term for people who are prejudiced and rank high on scales of conformity, intolerance, insecurity, respect for authority, and submissiveness to superiors
power that people consider legitimate, as rightly exercised over them; also called legitimate power
places where people rest from their performances, discuss their presentations, and plan future performances
a deeply embedded, common understanding of how the world operates and of how people ought to act
the direct exchange of one item for another
sociological research for the purpose of making discoveries about life in human groups, not for making changes in those groups
the growth rate equals births minus deaths plus net migration
a system of reckoning descent that counts both the mother’s and the father’s side
a society whose economy increasingly centers on modifying genetics to produce food, medicine, and materials
a family whose members were once part of other families
the ways in which people use their bodies to give messages to others
a contractual system in which someone sells his or her body (services) for a specified period of time in an arrangement very close to slavery, except that it is entered into voluntarily
a term describing Christians who have undergone a religious experience so life transforming that they feel they have become new persons
Karl Marx’s term for capitalists, those who own the means of production
a formal organization with a hierarchy of authority and a clear division of labor; emphasis on impersonality of positions and written rules, communications, and records
the death penalty
an economic system built around the private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, and market competition
a social movement in which South Pacific islanders destroyed their possessions in anticipation that their ancestors would ship them new goods
an intensive analysis of a single event, situation, or individual
a form of social stratification in which people’s statuses are lifelong conditions determined by birth
people, objects, and events that have similar characteristics and are classified together
a political party that represents the center of political opinion
literally, an extraordinary gift from God; more commonly, an outstanding, “magnetic” personality
authority based on an individual’s outstanding traits, which attract followers
literally, someone to whom God has given a gift; in its extended sense, someone who exudes extraordinary appeal to a group of followers
the separation of powers among the three branches of U.S. government—legislative, executive, and judicial—so that each is able to nullify the actions of the other two, thus preventing any single branch from dominating the government
according to Durkheim, one of the three essential elements of religion—a moral community of believers; also refers to a large, highly organized religious group that has formal, sedate worship services with little emphasis on evangelism, intense religious experience, or personal conversion
Robert Park’s term for back-and-forth communications among the members of a crowd whereby a “collective impulse” is transmitted
the concept that birth (and residence or naturalization) in a country imparts basic rights
a place in which a large number of people are permanently based and do not produce their own food
an independent city whose power radiates outward, bringing the adjacent area under its rule
Robert Bellah’s term for religion that is such an established feature of a country’s life that its history and social institutions become sanctified by being associated with God
Marx’s term for the struggle between capitalists and workers
Marx’s term for awareness of a common identity based on one’s position in the means of production
a form of social stratification based primarily on income, education, and prestige of occupation
a cluster of people within a larger group who choose to interact with one another
questions that are followed by a list of possible answers to be selected by the respondent
the alignment of some members of a group against others
a government in which a country’s largest party does not have enough votes to rule, and to do so aligns itself with one or more smaller parties
power that people do not accept as rightly exercised over them; also called illegitimate power
unmarried couples living together in a sexual relationship
extraordinary activities carried out by groups of people; includes lynchings, rumors, panics, urban legends, fads, and fashions
Gustave LeBon’s term for the tendency of people in a crowd to feel, think, and act in extraordinary ways
the process by which one nation takes over another nation, making colonies of them, usually for the purpose of exploiting its labor and natural resources
those things that “everyone knows” are true
to separate acts from feelings or attitudes
a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources
Thorstein Veblen’s term for a change from the thrift, saving, and investing of the Protestant ethic to showing off wealth through spending and the display of possessions
the idea that prejudice and negative stereotypes decrease and racial–ethnic relations improve when people from different racial–ethnic backgrounds, who are of equal status, interact frequently
a theory focusing on how people adjust to retirement by continuing aspects of their earlier lives
Erik Wright’s term for a position in the class structure that generates contradictory interests
the subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable
the idea that two control systems—inner controls and outer controls—work against our tendencies to deviate
the view that as capitalist and socialist economic systems each adopt features of the other, a hybrid (or mixed) economic system will emerge
the values that are central to a group, those around which people build a common identity
the domination of an economic system by giant corporations
crimes committed by executives in order to benefit their corporation
the values, norms, and other orientations that characterize corporate work settings
a business enterprise whose assets, liabilities, and obligations are separate from those of its owners; as a legal entity, it can enter into contracts, assume debt, and sue and be sued
the sociological principle that schools correspond to (or reflect) the social structure of their society
teachings or ideas that provide a unified picture of the world
a group whose values, beliefs, norms, and related behaviors place its members in opposition to the broader culture
the view that old age is a time for personal development, for greater creativity and learning new skills and outlooks on life
the use of diplomas and degrees to determine who is eligible for jobs, even though the diploma or degree may be irrelevant to the actual work
a device that allows its owner to purchase goods and to be billed later
the violation of norms written into law
the system of police, courts, and prisons set up to deal with people who are accused of having committed a crime
the annual number of live births per 1,000 population
the annual number of deaths per 1,000 population
a new religion with few followers, whose teachings and practices put it at odds with the dominant culture and religion
privileges accompanying a social location that help someone in life; included are more highly educated parents, from grade school through high school being pushed to bring home high grades, and enjoying cultural experiences that translate into higher test scores, better jobs, and higher earnings
the spread of cultural traits from one group to another; includes both material and nonmaterial cultural traits
the objectives held out as legitimate or desirable for the members of a society to achieve
Ogburn’s term for human behavior lagging behind technological innovations
the process by which cultures become similar to one another; refers especially to the process by which Western culture is being exported and diffused into other nations
not judging a culture, but trying to understand it on its own terms
the process of transmitting values from one group to another; often refers to how cultural traits are transmitted across generations; in education, the ways in which schools transmit a society’s culture, especially its core values
a value, norm, or other cultural trait that is found in every human group
the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that characterize a group and are passed from one generation to the next
the assumption that the values and behaviors of the poor make them fundamentally different from other people, that these factors are largely responsible for their poverty, and that parents perpetuate poverty across generations by passing these characteristics to their children
the disorientation that people experience when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted assumptions about life
paper money
a device that electronically withdraws the cost of an item from the cardholder’s bank account
medical procedures done not for the patient’s benefit but in order to protect physicians from malpractice law lawsuits
going without something in the present in the hope of achieving greater gains in the future
a term coined by Harold Garfinkel to refer to a ritual whose goal is to remake someone’s self by stripping away that individual’s self-identity and stamping a new identity in its place
the act or process of reducing people to objects that do not deserve the treatment accorded humans
the process of industries moving out of a country or region
a government whose authority comes from the people; the term, based on two Greek words, translates literally as “power to the people”
an individual who leads by trying to reach a consensus
a hybrid economic system in which the individual ownership of businesses is mixed with the state ownership of industries thought essential to the public welfare, such as the postal service, natural resources, the medical delivery system, and mass transportation
a four-stage historical process of change in the size of populations: first, high birth rates and high death rates; second, high birth rates and low death rates; and third, low birth rates and low death rates; fourth, shrinkage, in which deaths outnumber births
the three factors that change the size of a population: fertility, mortality, and net migration
the study of the size, composition, growth (or shrinkage), and distribution of human populations
a “brand name” within a major religion; for example, Methodist or Baptist
the number of workers who are required to support each dependent person—those 65 and older and those 15 and younger
a factor in an experiment that is changed by an independent variable
dealing with people as though they were objects; in the case of medical care, as though patients were cases and diseases, not people
a receipt stating that a certain amount of goods is on deposit in a warehouse or bank; the receipt is used as a form of money
the violation of norms (or rules or expectations)
each arrangement of power (a thesis) contains contradictions (antitheses) that make the arrangement unstable and must be resolved; the new arrangement of power (a synthesis) contains its own contradictions; this process of balancing and unbalancing continues throughout history as groups struggle for power and other resources
a form of government in which an individual has seized power
Edwin Sutherland’s term to indicate that people who associate with some groups learn an “excess of definitions” of deviance, increasing the likelihood that they will become deviant
the spread of an invention or a discovery from one area to another; identified by William Ogburn as one of three processes of social change
a form of democracy in which the eligible voters meet together to discuss issues and make their decisions
an environment that is harmful to health
a new way of seeing reality; identified by William Ogburn as one of three processes of social change
an act of unfair treatment directed against an individual or a group
the view that society is stabilized by having the elderly retire (disengage from) their positions of responsibility so the younger generation can step into their shoes
the withdrawal of investments by financial institutions, which seals the fate of an urban area
efforts to minimize conflict among people of different backgrounds and promote their cooperation in reaching mutual goals
the idea that the king’s authority comes from God; in an interesting gender bender, also applies to queens
the splitting of a group’s or a society’s tasks into specialties
in its narrow sense, written sources that provide data; in its extended sense, archival material of any sort, including photographs, movies, CDs, DVDs, and so on
the first social revolution, based on the domestication of plants and animals, which led to pastoral and horticultural societies
the group with the most power, greatest privileges, and highest social status
movement down the social class ladder
an approach, pioneered by Erving Goffman, in which social life is analyzed in terms of drama or the stage; also called dramaturgical analysis
the smallest possible group, consisting of two persons
digital money that is stored on computers
a religious group so integrated into the dominant culture that it is difficult to tell where the one begins and the other leaves off; also called a state religion
a system of producing and distributing goods and services
actions taken to sabotage the efforts of people who are thought to be legally harming the environment
a large clustering of service facilities and residential areas near highway intersections that provides a sense of place to people who live, shop, and work there
a formal system of teaching knowledge, values, and skills
authority more or less equally divided between people or groups (in heterosexual marriage, for example, between husband and wife)
Freud’s term for a balancing force between the id and the demands of society
Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian’s term for the new norms that people develop to cope with a new situation; used to explain crowd behavior
the practice of marrying within one’s own group
the use of economic incentives in a designated area to encourage investment
refers to how minorities and the poor are harmed the most by environmental pollution
a specialty within sociology whose focus is how humans affect the environment and how the environment affects humans
the study of patterns of disease and disability in a population
the stratification system of medieval Europe, consisting of three groups or estates: the nobility, clergy, and commoners
a policy of eliminating a population; includes forcible expulsion and genocide
activities designed to discover, enhance, maintain, or transmit an ethnic or racial identity
having distinctive cultural characteristics
the use of one’s own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other individuals or societies, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviors
the study of how people use background assumptions to make sense out of life
mercy killing
an attempt to win converts
a large number of people moving up the social class ladder, while a large number move down; it is as though they have exchanged places, and the social class system shows little change
the practice of marrying outside of one’s group
the use of control and experimental groups and dependent and independent variables to test causation
the group of subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the independent variable
a pattern of growth in which numbers double during approximately equal intervals, showing a steep acceleration in the later stages
an individual who increases harmony and minimizes conflict in a group; also known as a socioemotional leader
a family in which relatives, such as the “older generation” or unmarried aunts and uncles, live with the parents and their children
techniques used to salvage a performance (interaction) that is going sour
a temporary pattern of behavior that catches people’s attention
Marx’s term to refer to workers identifying with the interests of capitalists
two or more people who consider themselves related by blood, marriage, or adoption
the family in which a person grows up
the family formed when a couple’s first child is born
a pattern of behavior that catches people’s attention and lasts longer than a fad
the number of children that women are capable of bearing
payment to a physician to diagnose and treat a patient’s medical problems
the philosophy that men and women should be politically, economically, and socially equal; organized activities on behalf of this principle
a condition of U.S. poverty in which most poor families are headed by women
children assumed to have been raised by animals, in the wilderness, isolated from humans
the number of children that the average woman bears
currency issued by a government that is not backed by stored value
norms that are not strictly enforced
a secondary group designed to achieve explicit objectives
places where people give performances
a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium; also known as functionalism and structural functionalism
something that serves the same functions (or meets the same needs) as those of another social institution; psychotherapy for religion, for example
refers to high school graduates who have difficulty with basic reading and math
the process by which education opens and closes doors of opportunity; also known as social placement
a type of society in which life is intimate; a community in which everyone knows everyone else and people share a sense of togetherness
the behaviors and attitudes that a society considers proper for its males and females; masculinity or femininity
the relative value placed on men’s and women’s ages
learning society’s “gender map,” the paths in life set out for us because we are male or female
the unequal access to property, power, and prestige
the extent to which the findings from one group (or sample) can be generalized or applied to other groups (or populations)
a statement that goes beyond the individual case and is applied to a broader group or situation
the norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of people “in general”; the child’s ability to take the role of the generalized other is a significant step in the development of a self
inborn tendencies (for example, a tendency to commit deviant acts)
the annihilation or attempted annihilation of a people because of their presumed race or ethnicity
middle-class people moving into a rundown area of a city, displacing the poor as they buy and restore homes
a type of society that is dominated by impersonal relationships, individual accomplishments, and self-interest
the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another
the mostly invisible barrier that keeps women from advancing to the top levels at work
the top members of the capitalist class, who, through their worldwide interconnections, make the major decisions that affect the world
the growing interconnections among nations due to advances in trade, travel, and communications
capitalism (investing to make profits within a rational system) becoming the globe’s dominant economic system
an organization replacing old goals with new ones; also known as goal replacement
paper money backed by gold
higher grades given for the same work; a general rise in student grades without a corresponding increase in learning
the growing percentage of older people in the U.S. population
the amount of goods and services produced by a nation
people who interact with one another and who believe that what they have in common is significant; also called a social group
the ways in which individuals affect groups and the ways in which groups influence individuals
a narrowing of thought by a group of people, leading to the perception that there is only one correct answer and that to even suggest alternatives is a sign of disloyalty
the net change in a population after adding births, subtracting deaths, and either adding or subtracting net migration; can result in a negative number
a human condition measured by four components: physical, mental, social, and spiritual
stereotypes of the traits that make for high-performing and underperforming workers, which end up producing both types of workers
the unwritten goals of schools, such as teaching obedience to authority and conformity to cultural norms
the tendency of people with similar characteristics to marry one another
the belief that due to limitless possibilities anyone can get ahead if he or she tries hard enough
a society based on cultivating plants by the use of hand tools
professional care given to dying people at home; originally referred to a place, a hospice, but now refers to home care
people who occupy the same housing unit
Robert Park’s term for the relationship between people and their environment (such as land and structures); also known as urban ecology
organizing a workplace in such a way that it develops rather than impedes human potential
a human group that depends on hunting and gathering for its survival
a statement of how variables are expected to be related to one another, often according to predictions from a theory
Freud’s term for our inborn basic drives for them
a people’s ideal values and norms; the goals held out for them
beliefs about the way things ought to be that justify social arrangements
opportunities for crimes that are woven into the texture of life
people’s efforts to control the impressions that others receive of them
sexual relations between specified relatives, such as brothers and sisters or parents and children
the rule that prohibits sex and marriage among designated relatives
helping people to become part of the mainstream of society; also called mainstreaming
money received, usually from a job, business, or assets
a factor that causes a change in another variable, called the dependent variable
person-to-person or face-to-face discrimination; the negative treatment of people by other individuals
the third social revolution, occurring when machines powered by fuels replaced most animal and human power
a society based on the harnessing of machines powered by fuels
an increase in prices; technically, an increase in the amount of money in circulation, which leads to an increase in prices
a group toward which one feels loyalty
negative treatment of a minority group that is built into a society’s institutions; also called systemic discrimination
approved ways of reaching cultural goals
an individual who tries to keep a group moving toward its goals; also known as a task-oriented leader
the change that family members make in social class from one generation to the next
the same people serving on the boards of directors of several companies
the policy of exploiting minority groups for economic gain
direct questioning of respondents
effects of interviewers on respondents that lead to biased answers
the process of one group of people displacing a group whose racial–ethnic or social class characteristics differ from their own
the combination of existing elements and materials to form new ones; identified by William Ogburn as one of three processes of social change
Robert Michels’ term for the tendency of formal organizations to be dominated by a small, self-perpetuating elite
the view that the labels people are given affect their behavior either deviance or conformity
literally “hands off” capitalism, meaning that the government doesn’t interfere in the market
an individual who leads by being highly permissive
a system of symbols that can be combined in an infinite number of ways and can represent not only objects but also abstract thought
unintended beneficial consequences of people’s actions
someone who influences other people
ways in which people express their leadership
the stages of our life as we go from birth to death
the number of years that an average person at any age, including newborns, can expect to live
the maximum length of life of a species; for humans, the longest that a human has lived
people who influence legislation on behalf of their clients
a term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others’ reactions to us
an emphasis on male strength and dominance
an examination of large-scale patterns of society; such as how Wall Street and the political establishment are interrelated
the exercise of large-scale power, the government being the most common example
analysis of social life that focuses on broad features of society, such as social class and the relationships of groups to one another; usually used by functionalists and conflict theorists
an observation by Thomas Malthus that although the food supply increases arithmetically (from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 and so on), population grows geometrically (from 2 to 4 to 8 to 16 and so forth)
laws that require all children to attend school until a specified age or until they complete a minimum grade in school
the intended beneficial consequences of people’s actions
the law of supply and demand
a group’s approved mating arrangements, usually marked by a ritual of some sort
an imagined threat that causes physical symptoms among a large number of people
forms of communication, such as radio, newspapers, and television that are directed to mass audiences
a status that cuts across the other statuses that an individual occupies
the material objects that distinguish a group of people, such as their art, buildings, weapons, utensils, machines, hairstyles, clothing, and jewelry
a society in which women-as-a-group dominate men-as-a-group; authority is vested in females
a system of reckoning descent that counts only the mother’s side
the process by which ordinary aspects of life are rationalized and efficiency comes to rule them, including such things as food preparation
the tools, factories, land, and investment capital used to produce wealth
Durkheim’s term for the unity (a shared consciousness) that people feel as a result of performing the same or similar tasks
the transformation of a human condition into a medical matter to be treated by physicians
to make deviance a medical matter, a symptom of some underlying illness that needs to be treated by physicians
one of the social institutions that sociologists study; a society’s organized ways of dealing with sickness and injury
the means by which people place a value on goods and services in order to make an exchange—for example, currency, gold, and silver
a city of 10 million or more residents
an urban area consisting of at least two metropolises and their many suburbs
a merging of megacities and nearby populated areas into an even larger mass of people
a form of social stratification in which all positions are awarded on the basis of merit
a social movement that has the goal to change the social order not just of a country or two, but of a civilization, or even of the entire world
a central city surrounded by smaller cities and their suburbs
a central city and the urbanized counties adjacent to it
an examination of small-scale patterns of society; such as how the members of a group interact
the exercise of power in everyday life, such as deciding who is going to do the housework or use the remote control
analysis of social life that focuses on social interaction; typically used by symbolic interactionists
the use of social institutions to fulfill military goals
a social movement based on the prophecy of coming social upheaval
a crowd standing or walking around as they talk excitedly about some event
Richard Berk’s term for the efforts people make to minimize their costs and maximize their rewards
people who are singled out for unequal treatment and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination
the transformation of traditional societies into industrial societies
a form of government headed by a king or queen
any item (from sea shells to gold) that serves as a medium of exchange
the control of an entire industry by a single company
the belief that there is only one God
a fear gripping a large number of people that some evil threatens the well-being of society; followed by hostility, sometimes violence, toward those thought responsible
norms that are strictly enforced because they are thought essential to core values or the well-being of the group
a policy that permits or encourages ethnic differences
companies that operate across national boundaries; also called transnational corporations
the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to comprehend, explain, and predict events in our natural environments
an expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild, informal reaction such as a frown to a formal reaction such as a fine or a prison sentence
the economic and political dominance of the Least Industrialized Nations by the Most Industrialized Nations
the difference between the number of immigrants and emigrants per 1,000 population
the emerging technologies of an era that have a significant impact on social life
a political party that represents ideas that are not at the center of political opinion
a group’s ways of thinking (including its beliefs, values, and other assumptions about the world) and doing (its common patterns of behavior, including language and other forms of interaction); also called symbolic culture
communication without words through gestures, use of space, silence, and so on
expectations of “right” behavior
a family consisting of a husband, wife, and child(ren)
not imposing personal biases (values, attitudes) when conducting research or analyzing research fndings
a form of government in which a small group of individuals holds power; the rule of the many by the few
questions that respondents answer in their own words
the way in which a researcher measures a variable
Durkheim’s term for the interdependence that results from the division of labor; as part of the same unit, we all depend on others to fulfill their jobs
a group toward which one feels antagonism
the condition of being so fearful that one cannot function normally and may even flee
research in which the researcher participates in a research setting while observing what is happening in that setting
a society based on the pasturing of animals
men-as-a-group dominating women-as-a-group; authority is vested in males
a system of reckoning descent that counts only the father’s side
recurring behaviors or events
a group of individuals, often of roughly the same age, who are linked by common interests and orientations
the view that a personality disturbance of some sort causes an individual to violate social norms
a tongue-in-cheek observation that the members of an organization are promoted for their accomplishments until they reach their level of incompetence; there they cease to be promoted, remaining at the level at which they can no longer do good work
the diffusion of power among many interest groups that prevents any single group from gaining control of the government
a society made up of many different groups
the practice of the police, in the normal course of their duties, to either arrest or ticket someone for an offense or to overlook the matter
an organization formed by one or more special-interest groups to solicit and spend funds for the purpose of influencing legislation
the exercise of power and attempts to maintain or to change power relations
a form of marriage in which women have more than one husband
a form of marriage in which men have more than one wife
the belief that there are many gods
a target group to be studied
a graph that represents the age and sex of a population
the process by which a country’s population becomes smaller because its birth rate and immigration are too low to replace those who die and emigrate
the forced transfer of a minority group
a reward or positive reaction for following norms, ranging from a smile to a material reward
the application of the scientific approach to the social world
a society based on information, services, and high technology, rather than on raw materials and manufacturing
another term for postindustrial society; a chief characteristic is the use of tools that extend human abilities to gather and analyze information, to communicate, and to travel
the official measure of poverty; calculated to include incomes that are less than three times a low-cost food budget
the ability to carry out your will, even over the resistance of others
C. Wright Mills’ term for the top people in U.S. corporations, military, and politics who make the nation’s major decisions
an attitude or prejudging, usually in a negative way
respect or regard
a small group characterized by cooperative, intimate, long-term, face-to-face relationships
a social movement that promotes some social change
Durkheim’s term for common elements of everyday life
the development of medicine into a specialty that requires physicians to (1) obtain a rigorous education, (2) claim a theoretical understanding of illness, (3) take authority over clients, (4) regulate themselves, and (5) present themselves as doing a service to society (rather than just following self-interest)
Marx’s term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production
in its broad sense, the presentation of information in an attempt to influence people; in its narrow sense, one-sided information used to try to influence people
material possessions: includes animals, bank accounts, bonds, buildings, businesses, cars, cash, commodities, copyrights, furniture, jewelry, land, and stocks
an electoral system in which seats in a legislature are divided according to the proportion of votes that each political party receives
Weber’s term to describe the ideal of a self-denying, highly moral life accompanied by thrift and hard work
dispersed groups of people relevant to some issue; in the context of a social movement, the sympathetic and hostile publics who have an interest in the issues on which a social movement focuses; there is also an unaware or indifferent public
how people think about some issue
applying sociology for the public good; especially the use of the sociological perspective (how things are related to one another) to guide politicians and policy makers
a list of questions to be asked of respondents
the fundamental changes in society that follow when vast numbers of women enter the workforce
a group whose inherited physical characteristics distinguish it from other groups
prejudice and discrimination on the basis of race
a sample in which everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the study
a feeling of trust; applies to researchers and the people they are studying
using rules, efficiency, and practical results to determine human affairs
a widespread acceptance of rationality and social organizations that are built largely around this idea
authority based on law or written rules and regulations; also called bureaucratic authority
a social movement whose goal is to resist some social change
the norms and values that people actually follow; as opposed to ideal culture
the percentage of released convicts who are rearrested
a social movement that seeks to change people and institutions totally, to redeem them
a decision by the officers of a financial institution not to make loans in a particular area
a group whose standards we refer to as we evaluate ourselves
a social movement that seeks to reform some specific aspect of society
in Hinduism and Buddhism, the return of the soul (or self) after death in a different form
people evaluating themselves according to what others have; people becoming active participants of social movements based on their evaluations of what they think they should have compared with what others have
the extent to which research produces consistent or dependable results
according to Durkheim, beliefs and practices that separate the profane from the sacred and unite its adherents into a moral community
a sudden awareness of the supernatural or a feeling of coming in contact with God
the repetition of a study in order to test its findings
a form of democracy in which voters elect representatives to meet together to discuss issues and make decisions on their behalf
one of seven procedures that sociologists use to collect data: surveys, participant observation, case studies, secondary analysis, analysis of documents, experiments, and unobtrusive measures
the unemployed; unemployed workers are thought of as being “in reserve”—capitalists take them “out of reserve” (put them back to work) during times of high production and then put them “back in reserve” (lay them off) when they are no longer needed
the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors
a theory that social movements succeed or fail based on their ability to mobilize resources such as time, money, and people’s skills
people who respond to a survey, either in interviews or by self-administered questionnaires
armed resistance designed to overthrow and replace a government
violent crowd behavior directed at people and property
the sense that better conditions are soon to follow, which, if unfulfilled, increases frustration
ceremonies or repetitive practices; in religion, observances or rites often intended to evoke a sense of awe of the sacred
the behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status
conflicts that someone feels between roles because the expectations are at odds with those attached to another role
a role being stretched to include activities that were not originally part of that role
the ways in which someone performs a role; showing a particular “style” or “personality”
conflicts that someone feels within a role
feelings of erotic attraction accompanied by an idealization of the other
the transfer of authority from a charismatic figure to either a traditional or a rational–legal form of authority
another term for the power elite
unfounded information spread among people
Durkheim’s term for things set apart or forbidden that inspire fear, awe, reverence, or deep respect
the individuals intended to represent the population to be studied
either expressions of approval given to people for upholding norms or expressions of disapproval for violating them
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf’s hypothesis that language creates ways of thinking and perceiving
an individual or group unfairly blamed for someone else’s troubles
the application of systematic methods to obtain knowledge and the knowledge obtained by those methods
the use of objective, systematic observations to test theories
the analysis of data that have been collected by other researchers
compared with a primary group, a larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal group based on some interest or activity
a religious group larger than a cult that still feels substantial hostility from and toward society
belonging to the world and its affairs
the process by which a culture becomes less influenced by religion
the replacement of a religion’s spiritual or “other worldly” concerns with concerns about “this world”
the policy of keeping racial–ethnic groups apart
seeing certain features of an object or situation, but remaining blind to others
the unique human capacity of being able to see ourselves “from the outside”; the views we internalize of how we think others see us
questionnaires that respondents fill out
Robert Merton’s term for an originally false assertion that becomes true simply because it was predicted
preconceived ideas of what someone is like that lead to the person’s behaving in ways that match the stereotype
the killing of several victims in three or more separate events
biological characteristics that distinguish females and males, consisting of primary and secondary sex characteristics
the abuse of one’s position of authority to force unwanted sexual demands on someone
the healing specialist of a tribe who attempts to control the spirits thought to cause a disease
an individual who significantly influences someone else
the term used by Goffman to refer to how people use social setting, appearance, and manner to communicate information about the self
a form of social stratification in which some people own other people
a group small enough for everyone to interact directly with all the other people
the alteration of culture and societies over time
according to Weber, a large group of people who rank close to one another in property, power, and prestige; according to Marx, one of two groups: capitalists who own the means of production or workers who sell their labor
the use of background assumptions and life experiences to define what is real
a group’s formal and informal means of enforcing its norms
the entire human environment
Durkheim’s term for a group’s patterns of behavior
a social condition in which privileges and obligations are given to some but denied to others
the organized, usual, or standard ways by which society meets its basic needs
the degree to which members of a group or a society are united by shared values and other social bonds; also known as social cohesion
people’s actions influencing one another; usually refers to what people do when they are in one another’s presence, but also includes communications at a distance
the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society
movement up or down the social class ladder
a large group of people who are organized to promote or resist some social change
an organization to promote the goals of a social movement
the social ties radiating outward from the self that link people together
a group’s usual and customary social arrangements, on which its members depend and on which they base their lives
a function of education—funneling people into a society’s various positions
passing students on to the next level even though they have not mastered basic materials
the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to understand the social world objectively by means of controlled and repeated observations
the division of large numbers of people into layers according to their relative property, power, and prestige; applies to both nations and to people within a nation, society, or other group
the framework of society that surrounds us; consists of the ways that people and groups are related to one another; this framework gives direction to and sets limits on our behavior
an economic system built around the public ownership of the means of production, central planning, and the distribution of goods without a profit motive
the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group—the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, norms, and actions thought appropriate for them
people who share a culture and a territory
a framework of thought in which human behavior is considered to be the result of natural selection and biological factors: a fundamental cause of human behavior
understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context
the scientific study of society and human behavior
a group of people who support a particular issue and who can be mobilized for political action
Weber’s term for the desire to accumulate capital—not to spend it, but as an end in itself—and to constantly reinvest it
workers split along racial–ethnic, gender, age, or any other lines; this split is exploited by owners to weaken the bargaining power of workers
a political entity that claims monopoly on the use of violence in some particular territory; commonly known as a country
a government-sponsored religion; also called ecclesia
the position that someone occupies in a social group (also called social status)
ranking high or low on all three dimensions of social class
ranking high on some dimensions of social class and low on others; also called status discrepancy
all the statuses or positions that an individual occupies
indicators of a status; items that display prestige
assumptions of what people are like, whether true or false
“blemishes” that discredit a person’s claim to a “normal” identity
refusal by stockholders at their annual meetings to approve management’s recommendations
the goods that are stored and held in reserve that back up (or provide the value for) a deposit receipt or a currency
Robert Merton’s term for the strain engendered when a society socializes large numbers of people to desire a cultural goal (such as success), but withholds from some the approved means of reaching that goal; one adaptation to the strain is crime, the choice of an innovative means (one outside the approved system) to attain the cultural goal
a sample from selected subgroups of the target population in which everyone in those subgroups has an equal chance of being included in the research
crimes such as mugging, rape, and burglary
movement up or down the social class ladder that is due more to changes in the structure of society than to the actions of individuals
interviews that use closed-ended questions
the values and behaviors of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture; a world within a world
the meanings that people give their own behavior
a type of economy in which human groups live off the land and have little or no surplus
a community adjacent to a city
the migration of people from the city to the suburbs
Freud’s term for the conscience; the internalized norms and values of our social groups
the collection of data by having people answer a series of questions
a world system that takes into account the limits of the environment, produces enough material goods for everyone’s needs, and leaves a heritage of a sound environment for the next generation
something to which people attach meaning and then use to communicate with one another
another term for nonmaterial culture
a theoretical perspective that focuses on how people develop and use symbols to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another
how kinship is traced over the generations
a norm so strong that it brings extreme sanctions, even revulsion, if violated
putting yourself in someone else’s shoes; understanding how someone else feels and thinks, so you anticipate how that person will act
the collaboration of two or more people to manage impressions jointly
ways of thinking or rationalizing that help people deflect (or neutralize) society’s norms
in its narrow sense, tools; its broader sense includes the skills or procedures necessary to make and use those tools
the use of violence or the threat of violence to produce fear in order to attain political objectives
a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another
William I. and Dorothy S. Thomas’ classic formulation of the definition of the situation: “If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences”
a place that is almost totally controlled by those who run it, in which people are cut off from the rest of society and the society is mostly cut off from them
a form of government that exerts almost total control over people
the sorting of students into different educational programs on the basis of real or perceived abilities
authority based on custom
a society in which the past is thought to be the best guide for the present; a primary characteristic of tribal, peasant, and feudal societies
a social movement that seeks to change society totally, to transform it
a term that refers to a period following high school during which young adults have not yet taken on the responsibilities ordinarily associated with adulthood; also called adultolescence
an emerging stage of the life course between retirement and when people are considered old; about age 63 to 74
social movements whose emphasis is on some condition around the world, instead of on a condition in a specific country; also known as new social movements
a group of three people
a system of medical care in which the wealthy receive superior medical care and the poor inferior medical care
a group of people for whom poverty persists year after year and across generations
exchanges of goods and services that escape taxes because they are not reported to the government
the idea that everyone has the same basic rights by virtue of being born in a country (or by immigrating and becoming a naturalized citizen)
ways of observing people so they do not know they are being studied
interviews that use open-ended questions
movement up the social class ladder
a story with an ironic twist that sounds realistic but is false
the rehabilitation of a rundown area, which usually results in the displacement of the poor who are living in that area
the process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities and those cities have a growing influence on the culture
the extent to which an operational definition measures what it is intended to measure
values that together form a larger whole
values that contradict one another; to follow the one means to come into conflict with the other
the view that a sociologist’s personal values or beliefs should not influence social research
the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, superior or inferior, good or bad, beautiful or ugly
a factor thought to be significant for human behavior, which can vary (or change) from one case to another
a German word used by Weber that is perhaps best understood as “to have insight into someone’s situation”
groups made up of people who voluntarily organize on the basis of some mutual interest; also known as voluntary memberships and voluntary organizations
indifference and inaction on the part of individuals or groups with respect to the political process
armed conflict between nations or politically distinct groups
White Anglo-Saxon Protestant
the total value of everything someone owns, minus the debts
white immigrants to the United States whose cultures differ from WASP (White Anglo Saxon Protestant) culture
Edwin Sutherland’s term for crimes committed by people of respectable and high social status in the course of their occupations; includes bribery of public officials, securities violations, embezzlement, false advertising, and price fixing
the economic, political, and cultural connections that tie the world’s countries together
a theory of how the economic and political connections developed that now tie the world’s countries together
women bearing only enough children to reproduce the population