1.3Explain how the scientific method is used in anthropological explanations
A fundamental question faced by anthropologists is how to evaluate the particular social, cultural, or biological data they gather. Human knowledge is rooted in personal experience, as well as in the beliefs, traditions, and norms maintained by the societies in which people live. This includes such basic assumptions as putting on warm clothing in cold weather and bringing an umbrella if it is going to rain, for example. Yet, it also includes notions about how food should be prepared, what constitutes “appropriate” behavior, and what the appropriate social and cultural roles are for men and women.
Religion constitutes another source of human knowledge. Religious beliefs and faith are most often derived from sacred texts, such as the Bible, Qur’an, and Talmud, but they are also based on intuitions, dreams, visions, and extrasensory perceptions. Most religious beliefs are cast in highly personal terms and, like personal knowledge, span a wide and diverse range. People who do not accept these culturally coded assumptions may be perceived as different, abnormal, or nonconformist by other members of their society. Yet, ethnographic and cross-cultural research in anthropology demonstrates that such culturally constituted knowledge is not as general as we might think. This research indicates that as humans, we are not born with this knowledge. Such knowledge tends to vary both among different societies and among different groups within the same society.
Popular perceptions about other cultures have often been based on ethnocentric attitudes. Ethnocentrism is the practice of judging another society by the values and standards of one’s own society. To some degree, ethnocentrism is a universal phenomenon. As humans learn the basic values, beliefs, and norms of their society, they tend to think of their own culture as preferable, and as what is normal, while ranking other cultures as less desirable. Members of a society may be so committed to their own cultural traditions that they cannot conceive of any other way of life. They often view other cultural traditions as strange or alien, perhaps even inferior, crazy, or immoral.
Such deeply ingrained perceptions are difficult to escape, even for anthropologists. Nineteenth-century anthropologists, for example, often reinforced ethnocentric beliefs about other societies. The twentieth century saw the co-opting of anthropological data to serve specific political and social ends. As the twentieth century progressed, however, anthropologists increasingly began to recognize the biases that prevented the interpretation of other cultures in more valid, systematic ways.
Given the preceding concerns, it is critical to understand how anthropological interpretations are evaluated. In contrast to personal knowledge and religious faith, anthropological knowledge is not based on traditional wisdom or revelations. Rather, anthropologists employ the scientific method, a system of logic used to evaluate data derived from systematic observation. Researchers rely upon the scientific method to investigate both the natural and the social worlds because the approach allows them to make claims about knowledge and to verify those claims with systematic, logical reasoning. Through critical thinking and skeptical thought, scientists strive to suspend judgment about any claim for knowledge until it has been verified.
Testability and verifiability lie at the core of the scientific method. There are two ways of developing testable propositions: the inductive method and the deductive method. In the inductive method, the scientist first makes observations and collects data (see Figure 1.2).
Deductive and inductive research methods
The data collected are referred to as variables. A variable is any piece of data that changes from case to case. For example, a person’s height, weight, age, and sex all constitute variables. Researchers use the observations about different variables to develop hypotheses about the data. A hypothesis is a testable proposition concerning the relationship between particular sets of variables in the collected data. The practice of testing hypotheses is the major focus of the scientific method, as scientists test one another’s hypotheses to confirm or refute them. If a hypothesis is found to be valid, it may be woven together with other hypotheses into a more general theory. Theories are statements that explain hypotheses and observations about natural or social phenomena. Because of their explanatory nature, theories often encompass a variety of hypotheses and observations. One of the most comprehensive theories in anthropology is the theory of evolution (see Chapter 3). This theory explains diverse hypotheses about biological and natural phenomena, as well as discoveries by paleoanthropologists and geneticists.
In contrast to the inductive method, the deductive method of scientific research begins with a general theory from which scientists develop testable hypotheses. Data are then collected to evaluate these hypotheses. Initial hypotheses are sometimes referred to as “guesstimates” because they may be based on guesswork by the scientist. These hypotheses are tested through experimentation and replication. As with the inductive method, scientists test and retest hypotheses and theories to ensure the reliability of observations made.
Through these methods, researchers do not arrive at absolute truths. Theories may be invalidated or falsified by contradictory observations. Yet, even if numerous observations and hypotheses suggest that a particular theory is true, the theory always remains open to further testing and evaluation. The systematic evaluation of hypotheses and theories enables scientists to state their conclusions with a certainty that cannot be applied to personal and culturally construed knowledge.
Despite the thoroughness and verification that characterize the research, anthropological explanations have limitations. Anthropologists must grapple with a myriad of complex, interwoven variables that influence human society and biological processes. The complexities of the phenomena being studied make it difficult to assess all of the potential variables, and disagreements about interpretations are common. Consequently, conclusions are frequently presented as tentative and hypothetical. The point here, however, is not that progress is impossible. Anthropological evidence can be verified or discarded by making assumptions explicit and weeding out contradictory, subjective knowledge. Inadequate hypotheses are rejected and replaced by better explanations. Explanations can be made stronger by drawing on independent lines of evidence to support and evaluate theories. This process makes the scientific method much more effective than other means of acquiring knowledge.