An interpretive approach to the establishment clause of the First Amendment that would permit government financial support for certain religious programs, or would permit government sponsorship of religious practices, such as prayer in public schools.
Official who presides over quasi-judicial proceedings within government agencies and renders decisions about disputes governed by statutes, such as appeals from denials of Social Security disability benefits.
Legal system used by the United States and other countries in which a judge plays a relatively passive role as attorneys battle to protect each side’s interests. In the health law case, for example, the Supreme Court justices listened to vigorous arguments presented by the federal government’s attorneys as well as opposing arguments by attorneys representing states and interest groups seeking to invalidate the law.
Advertisements presented as editorials.
Measures taken in hiring, recruitment, employment, and education to remedy past and present discrimination against members of specific groups. For example, affirmative action efforts can range from advertising employment and educational opportunities in publications with primarily minority or female readers to giving extra points in university admissions processes to underrepresented groups, including racial minorities, poor people, women, and the disabled.
The process of featuring specific stories in the media to focus attention on particular issues, thereby setting the political agenda.
Factors that influence how we acquire political facts and knowledge and develop political values.
One of the framers of our political system, a close aid to George Washington and the nation’s first Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton was a strong advocate for robust presidential powers.
A French scholar who traveled throughout the United States in the early 1830s. His published notes, Democracy in America, offer a telling account of our nation’s formative years. It is a book that is still widely read.
A written argument submitted to an appellate court by those who are interested in the issue being examined but are not representing either party in the case; often submitted by interest groups’ lawyers to advance a specific policy position. For example, when the Supreme Court prepared to hear oral arguments in the health care law case, National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012), the justices received more than two dozen amicus briefs from interest groups and state attorneys general.
Opponents of ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1787 and 1788. This group worried that the new system would give the national government too much power, at the expense of state rights and individual liberties. (Note that those opposed to the Federalist Party in the late 1790s were not Anti-Federalists but rather Democratic-Republicans.)
Written arguments submitted by lawyers in appellate cases.
Districts encompassing an entire state, or large parts of a state, in which House members are elected to represent the entire area. Small states, like Wyoming and Vermont, have at-large legislators because they have just one legislative district (the entire state).
Personal beliefs regarding the viability and necessity of minor party candidates. Many will not vote for minor party candidates because they believe their vote will be wasted.
An approach to analyzing judicial decision making that looks at individual judges’ decision patterns to identify the attitudes and values that guide their decisions.
The recognized right of an individual, group, or institution to make binding decisions for society. While some might disagree with certain Supreme Court decisions, for instance, most recognize the Court’s authority in our system of government.
Supreme Court case that set the standard that House districts must contain equal numbers of constituents, thus establishing the principle of “one person, one vote.”
The net difference between a nation’s imports and its exports.
Laws that regulated who’s name appears on the general election ballot. In some states it is easier to accomplish than in other states.
The theory that the media reflect popular culture.
Trials in which a judge presides without a jury. The judge makes determinations of fact and law.
A legislature composed of two houses. Not only is Congress bicameral, consisting of the House and the Senate, but 49 of the 50 states also have a two-house legislature. Since 1934, Nebraska has had a unicameral (one house) legislature.
The first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, protecting civil liberties. Freedom of speech, for instance, is one of our core civil liberties, protected in the First Amendment.
The member of Congress who introduces a bill.
A system where delegates selected through primaries and caucuses are bound to support the candidate that they originally said they would support. That is, they are not allowed to switch their convention vote as they see fit.
Federal law passed in 2002 that outlawed soft-money contributions to party organizations. The bill is also sometimes called McCain–Feingold after the two Senate sponsors.
Funds given to states that allow substantial discretion to spend the money with minimal federal restrictions. State and local governments tend to prefer block grants to other forms of grants-in-aid, as there is more flexibility in how the money is spent.
A U.S. Supreme Court decision that overturned Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) and declared that government-mandated racial segregation in schools and other facilities and programs violates the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
The most significant Supreme Court case on campaign finance in American history. The court ruled that spending money was akin to speech, and therefore protected by the First Amendment.
The amount by which a government’s expenditures exceed its revenues.
The amount by which a government’s revenues exceed its expenditures.
An organization with a hierarchical structure and specific responsibilities intended to enhance efficiency and effectiveness. In government, it refers to departments and agencies in the executive branch. For example, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is an agency in the federal bureaucracy that carries out national tax laws through collection of income taxes and investigation of individuals and businesses that fail to pay the taxes required by the laws created by Congress.
A group of presidential advisers, primarily the secretaries of federal departments. The size of the cabinet has varied through the years, but lately it has been composed of roughly 20 members.
After 1960, a period when candidates began to portray themselves as independent from party politics, even though they often ran under a party banner.
A criminal punishment, otherwise known as the death penalty, in which a person is subject to execution after conviction. Reserved for the most serious offenses of murder and treason.
An economic system where business and industry are privately owned and there is little governmental interference.
A legal rule established by a judicial decision that guides subsequent decisions. The use of case precedent is drawn from the common law system brought from Great Britain to the United States. For example, in order to maintain stability in law, three of the justices in the majority claimed that they followed case precedent in voting to preserve a woman’s right of choice concerning abortion in Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992) even though they claimed that they did not necessarily agree with the original precedent that established that right in Roe v. Wade (1973).
The assertion that public opinion shapes and alters our political culture, thus allowing change.
Grants of money from the federal government to state or local governments for very specific purposes. These grants often require that funds be matched by the receiving entity.
The pseudonym for a group of writers who penned a series of articles in opposition to the ratification of the Constitution. Their concerns centered mostly on the size and power of the proposed national government.
Latino civil rights leader who founded the United Farm Workers and used nonviolent, grassroots mobilization to seek civil rights for Latinos and improved working conditions for agricultural workers.
A system in our government where each branch (legislative, executive, judicial) has the power to limit the actions of others. For example, even though President Obama announced a decision to send 30,000 additional troops to Afghanistan in December 2009, it did not automatically mean that Congress would appropriate the funds necessary to carry out the plan.
Nonprofessional members of the public who are involved in the collection, reporting, commenting, and dissemination of news stories; also known as street journalism.
A Supreme Court case that reversed decades of precedent by declaring unconstitutional laws that ban unions and corporations from using general operating funds on elections.
Individual freedoms and legal protections guaranteed by the Bill of Rights that cannot be denied or hindered by government. For example, the First Amendment right to freedom of speech was protected for Westboro Baptist Church’s members despite the fact that many Americans find the presentation of their messages near military funerals to be very offensive.
A federal statute that prohibited racial discrimination in public accommodations (hotels, restaurants, theaters), employment, and programs receiving federal funding.
Public policies and legal protections concerning equal status and treatment in American society to advance the goals of equal opportunity, fair and open political participation, and equal treatment under the law without regard to race, gender, disability status, and other demographic characteristics.
A government employment system in which employees are hired on the basis of their qualifications and cannot be fired merely for belonging to the wrong political party; it originated with the federal Pendleton Act in 1883 and expanded at other levels of government in the half-century that followed. Today, federal employees in the Internal Revenue Service, National Park Service, U.S. Department of Transportation, and other agencies are hired based on their qualifications and retain their jobs even when new presidents are elected.
A test for permissible speech articulated by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes in Schenck v. United States (1919) that allows government regulation of some expressions, such as prohibiting people from creating danger by falsely shouting “fire” in crowded theater, words that are likely to cause people to be needlessly injured when they rush to flee the building.
Division among people based on at least one social characteristic, such as educational attainment or race.
A nomination system where only members of the party are allowed to participate.
A rule declaring the end of a debate in the Senate. In most instance it takes 60 votes for cloture, meaning that even a minority of senators can hold up legislation.
Natural phenomenon of generational replacement due to death.
Being forced through physical abuse or other coercion to provide testimony against oneself in a criminal case, a practice that is prohibited by the Fifth Amendment.
Locales with two or more news organizations that can check each other’s accuracy and neutrality of reporting.
A right contained in the Sixth Amendment to enable criminal defendants to use court orders to require witnesses to appear and to require the production documents and other evidence.
Appellate court opinion by judge who endorses the outcome decided by the majority of judges, but wants to express different reasons to justify that outcome.
A committee of members of the House and Senate that irons out differences in similar measures that have passed both houses to create a single bill. The goal of the committee is to find common ground and emerge with a single bill. This process has become more difficult in recent years.
The probability that the results found in the sample represent the true opinion of the entire public under study.
Right contained in the Sixth Amendment for criminal defendants to see their accusers in court and hear at first hand the accusations and evidence being presented against them.
The research arm of Congress, a major player in budget creation.
The philosophy that legislators should follow the will of the people until they truly believe it is in the best interests of the nation to act differently.
A person who believes in limiting government spending, preserving traditional patterns of relationships, and that big government is a threat to personal liberties.
A meeting in Philadelphia in 1787 at which delegates from the colonies drew up a new system of government. The finished product was the Constitution of the United States.
Figure representing the cost of a specific set of goods and services tracked at regular intervals by the Department of Labor.
A Cold War strategy that sought to control and encircle the Soviet Union rather than defeat it militarily.
A system in which the powers of the federal and state government are intertwined and shared. Each level of government shares overlapping power, authority, and responsibility.
The alleged secret agreement in the disputed election of 1824 that led the House of Representatives to select John Quincy Adams, who had come in second in the popular vote, as president if he would make Speaker of the House Henry Clay his secretary of state.
A group of economists within the Executive Office of the President, appointed by the president to provide advice on economic policy.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s unsuccessful proposal in 1937 to permit the appointment of additional justices to the U.S. Supreme Court. Roosevelt sought to reduce the Court’s opposition to his New Deal policies through a plan that would permit the president to appoint a new justice whenever a sitting justice reached 70 years of age.
The highest courts in each American court system, typically called supreme courts, that hear selected appeals from the lower courts.
Efforts to secretly influence affairs in another state, which may include propaganda, disinformation campaigns, bribery, fomenting political and economic unrest, and, in the extreme, assassination.
A system in which the role of the federal government is expanded by providing financial incentives for states to follow congressional initiatives. Creative federalism establishes programs that are funded and regulated by Congress centralizing congressional authority over the states to provide social services. Many oppose this system because they believe that it usurps the authority of states and makes the national government too powerful.
Divisions in society that separate people into groups.
Proposed reform for government agencies intended to increase efficiency in administration and create closer contacts with the local public; permits regional and local offices to manage their own performances without close supervision from headquarters.
Racial segregation in housing and schools that was presumed to occur through people’s voluntary choices about where they wanted to live but was actually facilitated by the discriminatory actions of landlords, real estate agents, and banks.
A decrease in prices over time.
Racial segregation mandated by laws and policies created by government officials.
The philosophy that legislators should adhere to the will of their constituents. If most constituents want a particular measure, a legislator with this view would feel compelled to support it, regardless of his or her personal feelings.
A political system in which all citizens have a chance to play a role in shaping government action and are afforded basic rights and liberties.
The first American political party, formed by believers in states’ rights and followers of Thomas Jefferson.
Any of the 15 major government agencies responsible for specific policy areas whose heads are usually called secretaries and serve in the president’s cabinet. For example, the U.S. Department of State, led during the Obama administration by Secretary Hilary Clinton, the former U.S. senator from New York, is responsible for managing relationships with foreign governments and issuing passports to U.S. citizens.
Reduction of tension or strained relations between previously hostile nations.
A military strategy associated with the Cold War that sought to prevent an unwanted military action from taking place by raising the prospect of large-scale retaliation.
The transfer of jurisdiction and fiscal responsibility for particular programs from the federal government to state or local governments. State governments generally like certain components of devolution, most notably responsibility over decision making that impacts their residents; however, the fiscal responsibility that often comes with devolution is often difficult for states and localities to bear.
Iowa state court decision in 1868 that narrowly defined the power of local governments and established the supremacy of state governments when conflict exists with localities. Subsequently upheld by the Supreme Court.
Face-to-face meetings or telephone conversations between individuals.
Information mailed to a large number of people to advertise, market concepts, or solicit support.
The process by which average party members, sometimes called the rank-and-file, are allowed to select party nominees. This process replaced the hand-picked model used by party bosses.
The rate the Fed charges member banks for shortterm loans.
The power to apply policy in ways that fit particular circumstances.
Appellate court opinion explaining the views of one or more judges who disagree with the outcome of the case as decided by the majority of judges.
Government providing things of value to specific groups.
The idea that interest groups form when resources become scarce in order to contest the influence of other interest groups.
Theory that state governments had a right to rule any federal law unconstitutional and therefore null and void. The doctrine was ruled unconstitutional but contributed to the secession of southern states from the Union and ultimately the Civil War.
The theory that state governments had a right to declare their independence and create their own form of government. Eleven southern states seceded from the Union in 1860–1861, created their own government (the Confederate States of America), and thereby precipitated the Civil War. The Civil War demonstrated that the doctrine was invalid, but the idea that state governments ought to be very powerful and act in their own self-interest has resurfaced from time to time.
Being tried twice for the same crime, a practice prohibited by the Fifth Amendment.
Separate systems of state and federal courts throughout the United States. Each state court system is responsible for interpreting the laws and constitution of that specific state, while the federal courts are responsible for the U.S. Constitution and laws enacted by Congress. For example, the Ohio Supreme Court is the ultimate legal authority over the interpretation of its state’s constitution and the statutes enacted by the Ohio legislature.
A theory stating that the powers of the federal and state governments are strictly separate, with interaction often marked by tension rather than cooperation. Under a system of dual federalism, governments have separate spheres of responsibilities and influence and do not cooperate among themselves.
A statement of rights in the Fifth Amendment (aimed at the federal government) and the Fourteenth Amendment (aimed at state and local governments) that protects against arbitrary deprivations of life, liberty, or property. The Fourteenth Amendment phrase is also interpreted by the Supreme Court to expand a variety of rights, such as identifying a right to privacy in the concept of personal “liberty” that the clause protects against arbitrary government interference.
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (1953–1969) who led the Court to its unanimous decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) and also took a leading role in many decisions expanding civil liberties and promoting civil rights.
Legislation that benefits one state or district; also called particularized legislation. For example, a legislator might work diligently to get federal monies for the construction of a new stretch of an interstate highway.
Airtime provided free of charge to candidates for political office.
The belief that individuals can influence government. Internal political efficacy is the belief that individuals have the knowledge and ability to influence government. External political efficacy refers to the belief that governmental officials will respond to individuals.
A doctrine of equality that ignores differences in social status, wealth, and privilege.
Constitution that grants Congress the power to pass all laws “necessary and proper” for carrying out the list of expressed powers. This allows Congress to move on a broad host of matters so long as they can be linked to one of the enumerated (specifically stated) powers. It greatly enhances the power of the national government.
Any activity broadly linked to the outcome of a political campaign, such as voting, making phone calls, sending texts, and even talking with friends and neighbors about the upcoming election.
The procedure for selecting the president and vice president of the United States, defined in Article II of the Constitution, whereby the voters in each state choose electors to attend a gathering where the electors make the final decision.
The theory that a select few—better educated, more informed, and more interested—should have more influence than others in our governmental process. Elites tend to view the world differently than those who are less advantaged.
Government expenditures required by law.
An FCC rule requiring the broadcast media to offer all major candidates competing for a political office equal airtime.
A conception of equality that exists in some countries that value equal economic status as well as equal access to housing, health care, education, and government services. For example, governing systems that emphasize equality of condition provide health care, generous unemployment benefits, and government-financed opportunities to attend universities.
A conception of equality that seeks to provide all citizens with opportunities for participation in the economic system and public life but accepts unequal results in income, political power, and property ownership.
An egalitarian belief that government must work to diminish differences between individuals in society so that everyone is equal in status and value.
A clause in the First Amendment guaranteeing freedom from religion by providing a basis for Supreme Court decisions limiting government support for and endorsement of particular religions.
A general principle stating that evidence obtained illegally cannot be used against a defendant in a criminal prosecution. The Supreme Court has allowed certain exceptions to the rule in particular circumstances, such as when evidence obtained through an improper search would have eventually been discovered by the police later through actions permitted by law.
Binding commitments between the United States and other countries agreed to by the president but, unlike treaties, not requiring approval by the Senate.
A group of presidential staff agencies created in 1939 that provides the president with help and advice. Many suggest the growing powers of the presidency spring in large measure from the expansion of the EOP.
A regulation made by the president that has the effect of law. In the summer of 2012, for example, President Obama issued an executive order limiting the deportation of some illegal immigrant children brought to the United States by their parents.
Surveys of voters leaving polling places; used by news media to gauge how candidates are doing on election day.
The powers explicitly granted to the national government in the U.S. Constitution. For instance, Article I, Section 8 grants Congress the power to regulate commerce, and Article II, Section 2 stipulates that presidents will be commander in chief of the Army and Navy.
Policy that required television and radio broadcasters to provide time for opposing viewpoints on controversial issues so as to ensure fair and balanced reporting: formally abolished in 1987.
A law designed to limit the amount of money contributed to campaigns for Congress and the presidency and to broaden donation reporting requirements.
The interest rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans.
The policymaking arm of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors.
Founded by Alexander Hamilton, its members believed in a strong, centralized government.
The independent central bank of the United States.
A system of government in which power and authority are divided between a central government and regional subunits.
Supporters of the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. James Madison was one of the leading Federalists during this time. By the late 1790s, it was the name given to one of the first political parties, headed by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams. Many of the early Federalists, such as Madison, later joined the Democratic-Republican Party, in opposition to the Federalist Party.
Guarantees the right to vote shall not be denied to anyone on the basis of race.
Process in the United States Senate used to block or delay voting on proposed legislation or on the appointment of a judge or other official by talking continuously. Sixty senators must vote to end a filibuster.
Taxation and spending decisions made by the government.
An approach to interpreting the U.S. Constitution that permits the meaning of the document to change with evolving values, social conditions, and problems. For example, when the Supreme Court decided that the Eighth Amendment prohibition on “cruel and unusual punishments” forbids the application of the death penalty to offenders with mental development disabilities (Atkins v. Virginia, 2002), the majority of justices used a flexible interpretive approach that claimed society’s views about punishments for such individuals had changed over time.
Moments that capture attention and highlight the existence of a problem.
Specific type of categorical grant in which money is allocated and distributed based upon a prescribed formula.
Establishes that each state must guarantee equal protection of the laws to its citizens. In other words, states cannot abridge an individual’s civil liberties.
A clause in the First Amendment guaranteeing freedom to practice one’s religion without government interference as long as those practices do not harm other individuals or society.
The fact that public goods can be enjoyed by everyone, including people who do not pay their fair share of the cost for providing those goods.
Also called the Seven Year’s War, this was a series of military battles between Britain and France in North America between 1754 and 1763. The French received support from a number of Indian tribes. Britain won the war, but it proved quite costly—leading to novel ways of raising money from the colonists.
Winning the opportunity to communicate directly with a legislator or a legislative staff member to present one’s position on an issue of public policy.
A group or individuals who determine which stories will receive attention in the media and from which perspective.
Differences in voting and policy preferences between women and men. After controlling for other factors, women tend to be more liberal and Democratic than men.
The deliberate and systematic extinction of an ethnic or cultural group.
Drawing legislative district boundaries in such a way as to gain political advantage. With the rise of partisanship in most state legislatures, many assume that party-based gerrymandering will be more common in the years to come.
The expansion of economic interactions between countries.
Appealing directly to the people to garner support for presidential initiatives. For instance, presidents will often hold a press conference or an address in the White House Rose Garden when they are looking to build public support for a proposal that is languishing in Congress.
Agencies with independent boards and the means to generate revenue through sales of products and services, fees, or insurance premiums that are intended to run like private corporations.
Funds given from one governmental unit to another governmental unit for specific purposes. Such grants cover a wide array of programs, helping to equalize services among states and allow the federal government to influence policymaking at state and local levels.
An agreement at the Constitutional Convention that the new national government would have a House of Representatives—in which the number of members would be based on each state’s population—and a Senate—in which each state would have the same number of representatives.
A period prior to the American Revolution when the British Parliament sought to recoup some of the costs associated with the French and Indian War by levying new taxes and fees on colonists. Two examples of these measures would be the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act.
The value of all goods and services produced in a nation.
Federal law that limits the participation of federal government employees in political campaigns to protect them from feeling obligated to donate money or work for political candidates.
Committee sessions for taking testimony from witnesses and for collecting information on legislation under consideration or for the development of new legislation.
The right of a city with a population of more than 5,000 to adopt any form of government residents choose, provided that it does not conflict with the state constitution or statutes.
Process in Congress for removal of the president, federal judges, and other high officials. In 2010, for example, Congress impeached and removed from office Louisiana Federal Judge Thomas Porteous based on corruption and perjury charges.
The notion that the government should establish programs that provide a safety net for society’s poorest members.
The process used by the Supreme Court to protect individuals from actions by state and local governments by interpreting the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as containing selected provisions of the Bill of Rights. For example, in Klopfer v. North Carolina (1967), the U.S. Supreme Court held that the Sixth Amendment right to a speedy trial is fundamental to the criminal justice process and therefore applies to state criminal trials through the Fourteenth Amendment’s due process clause.
The various factors that favor officeholders running for reelection over their challengers. Those already in office have a huge advantage in their efforts to win reelection.
A voter who is not registered or affiliated with any political party.
Federal agencies with narrow responsibilities for a specific policy issue, such as the environment, not covered by one of the fifteen federal departments.
Organizational entities in the federal government that are not under the control of the president or a department.
An attitude, rooted in classical liberal theory and reinforced by the frontier tradition, that citizens are capable of taking care of themselves with minimal governmental assistance.
An increase in prices over time.
The advisers considered most important to the president—usually the secretaries of the departments of state, defense, treasury, and justice.
Legal system in most of Europe in which a judge takes an active role in questioning witnesses and seeking to discover the truth.
Appealing directly to lawmakers and legislative staff either in meetings, by providing research and information, or by testifying at committee hearings.
The concept of the presidency as a working collectivity—a massive network of staff, analysts, and advisers with the president as its head.
Gathering and analyzing information and communications, often secret, about potential enemies and other national security matters.
The theory that popular culture both shapes and reflects popular opinion.
A group of like-minded individuals who band together to influence public policy, public opinion, or governmental officials.
Courts that examine allegations concerning uncorrected errors that occurred during trials; usually called courts of appeals in state and federal court systems.
A type of journalism in which reporters thoroughly investigate a subject matter (often involving a scandal) to inform the public, correct an injustice, or expose an abuse.
A process that involves raising money and attracting media attention early in the election process, usually before the primary election year. Candidates that do well in this process have an advantage by the time the actual primaries and caucuses roll around.
The Reagan administration’s unauthorized diversion of funds from the sale of arms to Iran to support the Contras, rebels fighting to overthrow the leftist government of Nicaragua.
The tight relationship between employees in government agencies, interest groups, and legislators and their staff members, all of whom share an interest in specific policy issues and work together behind the scenes to shape laws and public policy.
The pattern of problems quickly gathering attention but then failing to remain in the spotlight.
Interest groups, scholars, and other experts that communicate about, debate, and interact regarding issues of interest and thus influence public policy when the legislature acts on those issues.
Participants in a crusade or holy war, especially in defense of Islam.
Laws enacted by southern state legislatures after the Civil War that mandated rigid racial segregation. For example, such laws not only required separate bank teller windows and elevators but also separate Bibles for swearing in African-American witnesses in court.
Early statute in which Congress provided the initial design of the federal court system.
The power of American judges to nullify decisions and actions by other branches of government, if the judges decide those actions violate the U.S. Constitution or the relevant state constitution. For example, interest groups and elected officials from several states unsuccessfully sought to have the Supreme Court exercise its power of judicial review in order to invalidate the Affordable Health Care Act, but their arguments gained support from only four of the nine justices.
An international agreement to address the problem of global warming. The United States was involved in its negotiation but has refused to ratify the agreement, citing excessive economic costs.
An economic model that maintains that a higher rate of taxation can result in lower government revenues.
A three-part test for establishment clause violations announced by the U.S. Supreme Court in Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971) that examines whether government policies support religious programs or cause excessive entanglement between government and religion.
The publication of false and malicious material that defames an individual’s reputation.
A person who generally supports governmental action to promote equality, favors governmental intervention in the economy, and supports policies attempting to solve environmental issues.
The idea that the media should be allowed to publish information that they deem newsworthy or of interest to the public without regard to the social consequences of doing so.
People who support individual liberty over government authority in economic, person and social realms.
The head of the majority party in the Senate; the second-highest-ranking member of the majority party in the House. In 2012, Democrat Harry Reid of Nevada was majority leader in the Senate.
Appellate court opinion that explains the reasons for the case outcome as determined by a majority of judges.
A case in which the U.S. Supreme Court asserted the power of judicial review, despite the fact that the concept is not explicitly mentioned in the U.S. Constitution. The case represented the first instance in which the Supreme Court declared a statute enacted by Congress, a portion of the Judiciary Act of 1789, to be invalid for violating the Constitution.
A measurement of the accuracy of the results of a survey to establish a range in which we think that the actual percentage of favorable ratings will fall.
The tax rate you pay on the last dollar that you earn in a given year.
The concept that ideas and theories compete for acceptance among the public, allowing for public debate and heightened awareness.
A civil rights leader who emerged from the Montgomery bus boycott to become a national leader of the civil rights movement and a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize.
The means by which information is transmitted to a large population across a large region. The mass media includes television, radio, magazines, newspapers and the Internet.
Benefits that have concrete value or worth.
A document setting-up a set of laws for the Pilgrims who landed at Plymouth Massachusetts in 1620. It was truly significant because they did not simply pick a leader to make decisions, but instead established rules that all would follow.
U.S. Supreme Court decision that defined the respective powers of the state and federal governments. The opinion established that the Constitution grants to Congress implied powers for implementing the Constitution’s express powers in order to create a functional national government, and that state action may not impede valid constitutional exercises of power by the Federal government.
A view that military power can be applied to situations in controlled and limited amounts that rise over time and that public support should not be a major factor governing its use.
Health care coverage for the poor.
Health care coverage for senior citizens.
The leading spokesperson and legislative strategist for the minority party in the House or the Senate. In 2012, Kentucky Republican Mitch McConnell was the Senate minority leader.
A U.S. Supreme Court decision that requires police officers, before questioning a suspect in custody, to inform that suspect about the right to remain silent and to have a lawyer present during custodial questioning. These warnings are intended to protect people from feeling pressured to incriminate themselves without being aware of their rights.
A political system in which the president is the central figure and participates actively in both foreign and domestic policy.
Money supply management conducted by the Federal Reserve.
Exclusive control by companies over most or all of a particular industry.
A federal law passed in 1993 requiring states to offer citizens the opportunity to register to vote in many state offices, including motor vehicle offices. This was intended to facilitate voter registration and increase the number of Americans who come to the polls election day.
Investigating and exposing societal ills such as corruption in politics or abuses in business.
A group that is interested in pursuing a broad range of public policy issues such as the AARP, which promotes a wide variety of public policies that impact older Americans.
Civil rights advocacy group founded by African Americans and their white supporters in 1909 that used the court pathway to fight racial discrimination in the 1930s through the 1950s and later emphasized elections and lobbying pathways.
The nation’s cumulative deficits.
Events that are held in the summer of presidential election years where party delegates, selected through primaries and caucuses, pick their party’s presidential nominee.
Basic rights that no government can deny. For example, the right to a fair, impartial trial would be considered a natural right, as would the right to speak out against government corruption.
A statement in Article I, Section 8, of the U.S. Constitution that grants Congress the power to pass all laws “necessary and proper” for carrying out the list of expressed powers providing basis for implied Congressional power. Also known as the elastic clause as it stretches Congressional power and authority.
People who believe that the United States has a special role to play in world politics; they advocate the unilateral use of force and the pursuit of a value-based foreign policy.
People who believe that cooperation is possible through the creation and management of international institutions, organizations, and regimes.
A public appearance by a governmental official for the purpose of releasing information to the press.
A media event, often staged, where reporters ask questions of politicians or other celebrities.
A set of policies and programs advanced by Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s with the aim of pulling the nation out of the Depression.
An approach to understanding judicial decision making that emphasizes the importance of courts’ structures and processes as well as the courts’ role in the governing system.
A scheme for government advanced at the Constitutional Convention that was supported by delegates from smaller states. It called for equal representation of states in a unicameral legislature. Under this approach, each state would have the same say in the national legislature, and the executive branch would have modest powers.
Single news firms that control all the media in a given market.
Granted women the right to vote.
Essentially meetings of rank-and-file party members where the qualifications of candidates are discussed and debated, and where a final vote determines the groups support for each.
The individuals selected by a party to run for office under that party’s label.
A military alliance set up by the United States and its Western European allies initially for the purpose of containing the expansion of the former Soviet Union.
A cabinet-level office that monitors federal agencies and provides the president with expert advice on fiscal policy-related topics.
The buying and selling of securities by the Federal Reserve Board to manipulate the money supply.
A nomination system where all are allowed to participate—regardless of their party affiliation.
Activities directed at the general public to raise awareness and interest and to pressure officials.
The responsibility of Congress to keep an eye on agencies in the federal bureaucracy to ensure that their behavior conforms to its wishes. Perhaps not surprisingly, many see this function as taking a more partisan flavor in recent years—particularly when one party controls Congress and the other the White House.
A belief that one belongs to a certain party; an emotional connection to a particular party.
Various measures of how often legislators of the same party stick together. When these measures are high, the level of bipartisanship is low. In recent years, party unity scores have been at record high levels.
The activities of citizens in American politics that affect the creation, alteration, and preservation of laws and policies. For instance, average citizens can change the course of public policy by bringing new officials into government through elections and by lobbying existing legislators.
A system that rewards the supporters of successful political candidates and parties with government jobs while firing supporters of the opposing party. In earlier eras, government employees throughout the bureaucracy could lose their jobs when a new president was elected from a different political party than his or her own. The same result was true in state and city governments when new governors and mayors were elected. Today new presidents appoint only the top leaders of federal departments and agencies.
Organizations or individuals that contribute money to political leaders or political groups.
Newspapers popular in the early nineteenth century that were highly partisan and often influenced by political party machines.
A tax on earnings that funds Social Security and Medicare.
Cheap newspapers containing sensationalized stories sold to members of the working class in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
The notion that there are greater and greater expectations placed on presidents, due in large measure to the way they run for office. At the same time, presidents are often unable to deliver on the promises they made during campaigns.
An economic model that assumes an inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation.
Puritans who sailed from Europe in the early 1600s to North America with the aim of settling the land and starting a new life. More generally, this term can mean a person who journeys to a holy land.
The set of issues, principles, and goals that a party supports.
Negotiation process in which prosecutors seek a quick, certain conviction without a trial by agreeing to reduce charges or recommend a less-than-maximum sentence in exchange for the defendant's voluntary plea of guilty.
A U.S. Supreme Court decision that endorsed the legality of racial segregation laws by permitting “separate but equal” services and facilities for African Americans, even though the services and facilities were actually inferior, such as markedly inferior schools for African-American children.
The president’s killing of a bill that has been passed by both houses of Congress, simply by not signing it within 10 days of the bill’s passage.
The powers reserved to state governments related to the health, safety, and well-being of citizens. For example, many consider the job of educating children to be the concern of local governments—a police power.
A way of classifying policies by their intended goal and means of carrying out that goal.
The norms, customs, and beliefs that help citizens understand appropriate ways to act in a political system; also, the shared attitudes about how government should operate
Fundamental value underlying the governing system of the United States that emphasizes all citizens’ opportunities to vote, run for office, own property, and enjoy civil liberties protections under the Constitution.
A consistent set of beliefs that forms a general philosophy regarding the proper goals, purposes, functions, and size of government.
The complex process through which people acquire political knowledge and form political values; also the conscious and unconscious transmission of political culture and values from one generation to another.
Legislators follow their own judgment until the public becomes vocal about a particular matter, at which point they should follow the dictates of constituents.
The process by which the actions of government are determined. For example, by appealing to members of the city council to change the new housing ordinance, several students decided to roll up their sleeves and become engaged in local politics.
People who believe that the government can be a positive agent to protect “common people” against the moneyed elite.
A view that cautions against the use of military force, especially where public support is limited, but states that once the decision to use force has been made, military power should be applied quickly and decisively.
The ability to exercise control over others and get them to comply. For instance, the National Rifle Association wields power because many legislators fear upsetting their large, active membership.
A military strategy based on striking first in self-defense.
Extraordinary powers that the president may use under certain conditions, such as during times of war.
Written statements that are given to the press to circulate information or an announcement.
A statute enacted by a legislature establishing a reporter’s privilege to protect the confidentiality of sources.
The interest rate that a bank charges its best customers.
Forbidding publication of material considered objectionable.
Effort by government to prohibit or prevent the publication of information or viewpoints. Since its decision in Near v. Minnesota (1931), the U.S. Supreme Court has generally forbidden prior restraint as a violation of the First Amendment protection for freedom of the press.
The process of turning some responsibilities of government bureaucracy over to private organizations on the assumption that they can administer and deliver services more effectively and inexpensively. During the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, for example, the government hired private companies to handle food services, transportation of supplies, and even personal protection, such as bodyguards, for American officials in Iraq.
Selection procedure in which each member of the target population has a known or an equal chance of being selected. Probability samples are the most commonly employed by professional polling companies.
Organization that represents individuals, largely educated and affluent, in one particular occupational category.
A tax structured such that higher-income individuals pay a larger percentage of their income in taxes.
A type of categorical grant in which a competitive application process is required for a specific project (often scientific or technical research or social services).
Events that appear spontaneous but are in fact staged and scripted by public relations experts to appeal to the new media or the public.
Goods—such as clean water, public roads, and community libraries—that are used or consumed by all individuals in society.
Citizen organizations that advocate issues of public good, such as protection of the environment.
The attitudes of individuals regarding their political leaders and institutions as well as political and social issues. Public opinion tends to be grounded in political values and can influence political behavior.
What government decides to do or not do; government laws, rules, or expenditures. For instance, it is state public policy that you must be 21 years old to purchase alcohol.
Intangible rewards people obtain from joining a group they support and working to advance an issue in which they believe.
The expectation that Americans will unite behind the nation’s leaders in times of crisis.
The goal is to win offices and to control the distribution of government jobs.
The process by which seats in the House of Representatives are reassigned among the states to reflect population changes following the Census (every 10 years). In recent decades Sun Belt states have netted more seats, and Rust Belt states have lost seats.
Permissible government regulations on freedom of speech that seek to prevent disruptions or threats to public safety in the manner in which expressions are presented, such as blocking a street to stage a protest march. Such regulations cannot be used to control the content of political speech.
Supporting a legislator’s bill in exchange for support of one’s own bill.
Government providing a broad segment of the society with something of value.
The process of redrawing legislative district boundaries within a state to reflect population changes. The shifting of district boundaries can have massive political implications. At times, two sitting legislators are placed in the same district, for example. They are forced to run against each other.
A tax structured such that higher-income individuals pay a lower percentage of their income in taxes.
Legal rules created by government agencies based on authority delegated by the legislature.
The asserted right of news reporters to promise confidentiality to their sources and to keep information obtained from sources, including evidence of criminal activity, secret. The U.S. Supreme Court has held that reporter’s privilege is not a component of the First Amendment’s protection for freedom of the press.
A system of government in which members of the general public select agents to represent them in political decision-making. For example, most campus student governments can be considered republics because elections are held to choose student representatives.
Minimum percentage of deposits that a financial institution must keep on hand.
The goal is to shape public policy.
A constitutional right created and expanded in U.S. Supreme Court decisions concerning access to contraceptives, abortion, private sexual behavior, and other matters, even though the word privacy does not appear in the Constitution. A majority of Supreme Court justices since the 1960s have identified privacy protections as among the rights within the concept of protected liberty in the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Controversial U.S. Supreme Court decision that declared women have a constitutional right to choose to terminate a pregnancy in the first six months following conception.
The staggering of senatorial terms such that one-third of the Senate comes up for election every 2 years. Even if voters are ripping mad throughout the nation, only one-third of the Senate can be removed in a particular election.
A subset of the population under study; if selected correctly, it represents the population from which it was drawn with reliable and measurable accuracy.
Benefits provided only to members of an organization or group.
Traditional deference by U.S. senators to the wishes of their colleagues concerning the appointment of individuals to federal judgeships in that state.
Length of time served in a chamber of the legislature. Members with greater seniority have traditionally been granted greater power.
Program within the federal executive branch, established by Congress in 1978 to enable senior administrators with outstanding leadership and management skills to be moved between jobs in different agencies to enhance the performance of the bureaucracy.
An interpretive approach to the establishment clause of the First Amendment, which requires a “wall of separation” between church and state, including prohibitions on using government money for religious programs.
Change to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1913, which provides for the direct election of senators. Without this change, we would not vote for our senators, but instead they would be chosen by the state legislature.
The U.S. Constitution’s granting of specific powers to each branch of government while making each branch also partly dependent on the others for carrying out its duties. For example, the Supreme Court ruled that “separate but equal” educational systems were unconstitutional in 1954, but the task of actually desegregating schools was left to President Eisenhower.
An armed uprising in western Massachusetts in 1786 and 1787 by small farmers angered over high debt and tax burdens. This event helped bring about the Constitutional Convention, as many worried that similar events would happen unless there were changes.
A written proclamation issued by the president regarding how the executive branch intends to interpret a new law. Occasionally these statements seem to contradict what Congress had in mind, making them quite controversial.
A group that is interested primarily in one area of public policy such as The American Association for Affirmative Action (AAA) founded in 1974 to promote equal access to educational and economic opportunities.
A political theory that holds individuals give up certain rights in return for securing certain freedoms. If the government breaks the social contract, grounds for revolution exist. This notion was at the core of the Declaration of Independence.
The idea that the media should consider the overall needs of society when making decisions about what stories to cover and in what manner: also known as Public Advocate Model.
A federal program started in 1935 that taxes wages and salaries to pay for retirement benefits, disability insurance, and hospital insurance.
A fund to pay future Social Security benefits, supposedly being built through today’s payroll tax.
An economic system in which the government owns and controls most factories and much or all of the nation’s land.
Funds contributed through a loophole in federal campaign finance regulations that allowed individuals and groups to give unlimited sums of money to political parties.
Benefits derived from fellowship and camaraderie with other members.
A short outtake from a longer film, speech or interview.
The exclusive right of an independent state to reign supreme and base absolute power over a geographic region and its people.
The presiding officer of the House of Representatives, who is also the leader of the majority party in the House. In 2012, Republican John Boehner of Ohio was Speaker.
Local governmental units established for very specific purposes, such as the regulation of water and school districts, airports, and transportation services. Decisions made by special governments tend to have a very large impact on the daily lives of individuals but typically garner less media attention.
A norm suggesting that members of both chambers have extensive knowledge in a particular policy area. One member might specialize in military matters, while another might focus on agricultural issues. This norm serves the needs of the full chamber.
The combination of stagnant GDP, rising unemployment, and rapid inflation.
Laws written by state legislatures and by Congress. For example, the Affordable Health Care Act was a statute written and enacted by Congress.
An approach to analyzing judicial decision making that identifies strategic decisions made by judges in order to advance their preferred case outcomes.
A theory of robust, broad presidential powers; the idea that the president is only limited by explicit restrictions in the Constitution. This model, now completely accepted, set the stage for a broad expansion of presidential powers.
Negotiations between the United States and Soviet Union during the Cold War that produced two major agreements on limiting the size of each country’s nuclear forces.
An exacting test for violations of fundamental rights by requiring the government to demonstrate a compelling interest when policies and practices clash with certain constitutional rights. The government may persuade judges, for example, that national security interests or health and safety interests outweigh the exercise of free speech or religion in specific situations.
Specialized groups within standing committees. For example, a subcommittee of the House Education and Labor Committee is Early Childhood, Elementary, and Secondary Education.
Officially known as “independent expenditure-only committees,” these groups are allowed to raise unlimited sums from unlimited sources, including corporations, unions and other groups, as well as wealthy individuals. But, they are not allowed to coordinate their campaign activities and spending with the candidates they are trying to help, hence the term “independent expenditure-only committees.”
The expression of an idea or viewpoint through an action, such as wearing an armband or burning an object. Symbolic speech can enjoy First Amendment protections.
The differences in access to and mastery of information and communication technology between segments of the community (typically for socioeconomic, educational, or geographical reasons).
A case sponsored or presented by an interest group in the court pathway with the intention of influencing public policy. For example, Grutter v. Bollinger (2003), the case challenging affirmative action policies at the University of Michigan School of Law, was an unsuccessful test case filed by the Center for Individual Rights.
A series of 85 essays in support of ratification of the U.S. Constitution that were written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay and published under the byline Publius in New York City newspapers between October 27, 1787, and May 28, 1788. We often turn to these essays to better understand the intent of the framers.
A group of individuals who conduct research in a particular subject or a particular area of public policy.
An American revolutionary writer and a democratic philosopher whose pamphlet Common Sense (1776) argued for complete independence from Britain. Among much else, his writings helped inspire colonists to join the Patriot cause and to bolster support for the Continental Army.
A system of government in which the ruling elite holds all power and controls all aspects of society. Nazi Germany was a totalitarian government in the 1930s and early 1940s.
A formal agreement between governments. For example, in the 1970s the United States joined many other nations in agreeing to limit the testing and development of nuclear weapons.
A right contained in the Sixth Amendment to have criminal guilt decided by a body of citizens drawn from the community.
The means, often tied to focusing events, to push a recognized problem further along in the policy cycle.
Thinking of political parties as consisting of three parts—in-government; in-the-electorate; and as-an-organization.
The philosophy that legislators should consider the will of the people but act in ways they believe best for the long-term interests of the nation, at which time, the precise “will of the people” is set aside.
The percentage of citizens legally eligible to vote in an election who actually vote in that election. In most recent presidential elections, the turnout is slightly over 50 percent.
Required a separate vote tally in the Electoral College for president and vice president. This change made running on a party ticket much easier.
Eliminated the poll tax.
Granted 18-year-old citizens the right to vote.
The percentage of Americans who are currently not working but are seeking jobs.
A system of government in which political power and authority are located in one central government that runs the country and that may or may not share power with regional subunits.
The practice, employed by 48 states, of awarding all of a state’s electoral college votes to the candidate who receives the greatest number of popular votes in that state. In these states it is all or nothing!
The right to vote for all adult citizens.
The disapproval of a bill or resolution by the president. A veto can be overturned by 2/3rds vote of both houses of Congress.
The belief, attributed to the American experience in Vietnam, that the public will not support the use of military force if it results in significant American casualties.
A plan made by delegates to the Constitutional Convention from several of the larger states calling for a strong national government with a bicameral legislature, a national executive, a national judiciary, and legislative representation based on population. Much of this plan found its way into the Constitution, shaping the system we live under today.
Summaries encapsulating the informed judgment of others in the legislature; members of Congress rely on these to streamline the decision-making process.
Federal statute that effectively attacked literacy tests and other techniques used to prevent African Americans from voting.
A measure passed by Congress in 1973 designed to limit presidential deployment of troops unless Congress grants approval for a longer period. Every president since the passage of this measure has argued that it is unconstitutional, and has not agreed to abide by its provisions.
A judicial order authorizing a search or an arrest. Under the Fourth Amendment, police and prosecutors must present sufficient evidence to constitute “probable cause” in order to obtain a warrant from a judge.
Weapons capable of inflicting widespread devastation on civilian populations.
A theory of restrained presidential powers; the idea that presidents should use only the powers explicitly granted in the Constitution. Under this approach Congress, not the president, would lead the policy process.
Assistants to House and Senate leaders, responsible for drumming up support for legislation and for keeping count of how members plan to vote on different pieces of legislation. Given the rise of partisanship in Congress, the job of the Whips has become much more intense.
An employee who reports or reveals misconduct by government officials or others.
A federal law intended to prevent employees in the bureaucracy from being punished for reporting or revealing governmental misconduct.
A legal action that asks a higher court to call up a case from a lower court; the legal action used to ask the U.S. Supreme Court to accept a case for hearing.
Sensationalistic stories featured in the daily press around the turn of the twentieth century.